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HISTORY OF ENGLAND 



BY 



A. P. STONE, LL.D., 
** 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 



Revised by 

WALTER H. CUSHING, 

Principal High School, Framingham, Mass. 



BOSTON 
THOMPSON BROWN COMPANY 






Copyright, 1882, 19*4, 
THOMPSON, BROWN, & €©< 

Copyright, 1907, 
By WILLIAM C. STONE 

Copyright, 1910, 
By WILLIAM C, STONE 



©CU256136 



PREFACE. 



This work is designed as a text-book in English history for 
those who desire a course of moderate extent. Though com- 
paratively brief, it omits no essential facts in the historical 
narrative, and it gives sufficient prominence to those features 
whose importance entitles them to such a consideration. The 
basis of the work is the chapter on England in the well-known 
" Elements of History " by Dr. Joseph E. Worcester, for many 
years a very popular text-book in extensive use in American 
schools. It has been thoroughly revised and rewritten, and 
enlarged by important additions and by a fuller treatment of 
such portions as seemed to demand it. Such corrections and 
modifications have also been made as had become necessary 
in view of the light of historical research and criticism since 
the original work was written. 

The aim of the Editor has been to prepare a convenient 
manual, that shall serve as a guide to both teacher and pupil in 
an intelligent study of English history, and to present the sub- 
ject in such a way as to remove from the pupil all inducements 
to make the study one of memorizing and routine, to assist the 
teacher in encouraging independent study and investigation, 
and. to enable him to apply frequent tests of the pupils' work 
and knowledge. 

Such suggestions and helps only have been furnished as will 
indicate the proper object and method of historical study, and 
make its pursuit one of pleasure and profit, and at the same 

iii 



IV PREFACE. 

time will leave the teacher at liberty to follow whatever special 
plan may be suggested by his own individual preferences or 
habits of work. 

Some features of the book will, it is believed, be of important 
assistance in its use. Instead of printed questions, against the 
use of which there are very grave objections, side-notes have 
been added, which give a key to the contents of the paragraph 
in which they are set, but which, nevertheless, require the 
learner to read carefully the whole text. Several new -maps 
have been prepared to indicate important localities and events, 
and these maps are rendered specially clear and attractive by 
the absence of all unnecessary detail. A chronological table 
of sovereigns, convenient for reference, precedes the text ; and 
at the close of the work will be found tables of leading histor- 
ical events and of distinguished persons, a list of the British 
Possessions, the genealogy of English sovereigns, a list of the 
members of the royal family, and a brief account of the English 
Government. Outline synopses for review, with tables of con- 
temporaneous history, have been inserted at convenient inter- 
vals, both for practical use and as suggestive models for teacher 
and pupil. An Index is added, which will be found a ready 
key to the names of all persons, places, and topics treated in 
the text. 

The present revised edition of the work contains additions 
giving to portions of the narrative fuller treatment, and adding 
important matter and detail concerning the mode of life and 
social customs of the English people. It is believed that this 
feature will be regarded a valuable one by those vno make 
history a study of the progress of a people, 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



1. Encourage the pupil to read through carefully the entire les 
son for the day, in connection with what immediately precedes, so 
as to obtain a general and a connected idea of the subject, which 
will enable the mind to grasp and retain the main facts of the 
lesson, without memorizing the words of the text. 

2. Taking the side-notes as guides, use such questions of your 
own as will compel the learner to give the connected story of the 
lesson. Questions that will admit of very brief answers should be 
avoided. 

3. Require the recitation to be given in the pupil's own language 
as far as possible, making allowance for age and other circum- 
stances. 

4. Make frequent use of the maps, and require sketch-maps and 
plans to be drawn upon the blackboard. A very few important 
dates only should be committed and often reviewed. 

5. Show pupils how to extend their reading and researches into 
other books than their text-books, and to obtain information of 
the same events as told in the larger works of Macaulay, Hume, 
Lingard, Knight, Green's English People, &c. ; and occasionally 
assign different topics to different pupils for fuller investigation. 

6. Have frequent reviews and re-reviews, varying them so as to 
make them topical, chronological, and geographical. 

7. Lessons should not be too lengthy. Their extent should de- 
pend upon the age of the pupils, the importance of the topic, and 
the minuteness and thoroughness with which it is to be treated. 

8. Cultivate in the class a fondness for reading in history and 
biography. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Suggestions to Teachers v 

Chronological Table of Sovereigns .... viii 

PART L — ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 



CHAPTER. 

I. Early Britain ..... 

II. Britain under Roman . Occupation . 

III. Saxon Conquests. — The Heptarchy 

IV. Saxon Kings. — Danish Incursions . 
V. Danish Kings. — Saxon Kings restored 

Synopsis for Review .... 



i 

6 

12 
21 

28 
22 3 



PART II. — THE FEUDAL PERIOD. 



I. The Norman Family 45 

II. The Plantagenet Family . % . . . . . .57 

III. The Branch of Lancaster 81 

IV. The Branch of York 87 

Synopsis for Review . 225 

Chronological Table of Sovereigns and Important 

Events 227 

PART III. — MODERN ENGLAND. 

I. The Tudor Family 97 

II. The Stuart Family (Part I.) 122 

III. The Commonwealth H 1 

IV. The Stuart Family (Part II.) 149 

Synopsis for Review 230 

. Chronological Table of Sovereigns and Important 

Events . . . 232 

w . The House of Brunswick (Part L) 102 



CONTENTS. vil 

CHAPTER. pAGE> 

VI. The House of Brunswick (Part II.) jg g 

Thf "Rpiticvt flnvifPivrMiriv'r 

' 219 



The British Possessions 

Synopsis for Review 

Chronological Table of Sovereigns and Important 

Events 236 

Genealogy of English Sovereigns 238 

The Present Royal P^amily of Great Britain . . 243 
Tables . 244 



LIST OF MAPS. 

Early Britain facing page 1 

English History subsequent to the Conquest . . 4 c 

British Islands and Continental Europe adjacent . 57 

English Possessions in France 86 

British India 193 

Eastern China 195 

The Crimea, Greece, &c 197 

South African Possessions . . ,. . . 204 



SOVEREIGNS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



Saxon Line. 
Egbert 
Ethelwolf . 
Ethelbald . 
Ethelbert . 
Ethelred I. 
Alfred . 

Edward the Elder 
Athelstan . 
Edmund I.. 
Edred . 
Edwy . 
Edgar . 

Edward the Martyr 
Ethelred H. 
Edmund II. 

Danish Line. 

Canute I. . 
Harold I. . 
Canute II. . 
Edward (Saxon) 
Harold II. (Saxon) 



Yrs. 

827- 838-11 
838- 857-20 
857- 860- 3 
860- 866- 6 
866- 871- 5 
871- 901-30 
901- 925-24 
925- 941-16 
941- 948- 7 
948- 955- 7 
955- 959- 4 
959- 975-i6 
975- 978- 3 
978-1016-38 
1016-1017- 1 



1017-1036-19 
1036-1039- 3 
1039-1041- 2 
1041-1065-24 
1065-1066- 1 



Norman Family. 

William I. . . . . 1066-1087-21 

William II. ... 1087-1100-13 

Henry 1 1100-1135-35 

Stephen .... 1135-1154-19 

Plantagenet Family. 

Henry II 1154-1189-35 

Richard 1 1189-1 199-10 

John 1199-1216-17 

Henry III 1216-1272-56 

Edward 1 1272-1307-35 

Edward II. ... 1307-1327-20 
viii 



Plantagenet Family. Yrs. 
Edward III. . . . 1327-1377-50 
Richard II. ... 1377-1399-22 

Branch of Lancaster. 

Henry IV. . . . 1399-1413-14 

Henry V. ... 1413-1422- 9 

Henry VI. . . . 1422-1461-39 

Branch of York. 

Edward IV. . . . 1461-1483-22 

Edward V. 1483 74 days. 

Richard III. . . . 1483-1485- 2 

Tudor Family. 
Henry VII. . . 1485-1509-24 

Henry VIII. . . . 1509-1547-38 
Edward VI. . . . 1 547-1553- 6 

Mary 1553-1558- 5 

Elizabeth .... 1558-1603-45 

Stuart Family. 

James 1 1603-1625-22 

Charles 1 1625-1649-24 

The Commonwealth . . 1649-1660-n 

Charles II 1660-1685-25 

James II 1685-1688- 3 

William and Mary . . 1688-1702-14 

Anne 1702-1714-12 

House of Brunswick. 

George 1 1714-1727-13 

George II. . . . . 1727-1760-33 

George III. . . , . 1760-1820-60 

George IV 1820-1830-10 

William IV. . . . 1830-1837- 7 

Victoria .... 1837-1901-64 

Edward, VIL 19,01 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



PART L 

ENGLAND BEFORE THE NORMAN CON- 
QUEST. 

A.D. 1066. 



CHAPTER I. 

EARLY BRITAIN. 

GREAT BRITAIN is the geographical name of the island 
which comprises England, Scotland, and Wales. In a 
political sense it includes also Ireland and several Great Brit- 
other islands and countries in various parts of the ain * 
world, and is called the United Kingdom of Great Britain; 
also the British Empire. 

2. The Jsland of Britain was known to the ancients several 
centuries before the Christian era, and was visited by the 
Phoenician and Carthaginian traders, who obtained Known to 
from the natives various commodities, such as the ancients, 
skins, lead, and tin. Tin was used with copper in forming 
bronze, — an article in extensive use among the ancient Ori- 
ental nations. 

1 



2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

3. The early name of the country was Albion, signifying 

White Isle ; suggested, probably, by the chalk-cliffs 
on its southern coast. The Greeks and Romans 
called it Britain (Britannia), or land of tin. Some writers, 
however, derive this name from brith^ or brit, painted ; because 
the inhabitants were accustomed to paint or stain their bodies 
with a blue dye. 

4. The first known inhabitants of Britain were of the Celtic 
race, who at an early period came over from the neighboring 
Early jnhab- continent, — probably from Gaul, now France. The 
itants. present inhabitants of Wales are supposed to be 
regular descendants from a branch of Celts called Cimri. 
Thcjgh now called Welsh by their English neighbors and 
others, they still call themselves Kimry, or Cimri. 

5. The Celts were a lively, quick-witted people, though rude 
and barbarous, possessing little property except their arms and 
Character cattle, and frequently moving from place to place 
and mode of in pursuit of game, pasturage, and plunder. They 

gave little attention to the cultivation of the soil, 
but lived mostly upon wild fruits and the flesh of their herds 
and flocks. Their dwellings — constructed of timber, wicker- 
work, and thatch — were circular in form, with a conical roof; 
and were built in groups, and surrounded by felled trees. 

6. The people were divided into many petty tribes, each 
with its king; and these tribes were often at war with one 
Government another and with their neighbors, in which they 
and wars. displayed much bravery and skill. They used 
wicker shields, swords and spears of iron and bronze, and 
war-chariots armed with scythes and hooks, and drawn by well- 
trained horses. 

7. The religion of the early Britons, called Druidism, was a 
cruel superstition, which entered into all the affairs of life, and 
Religion and exerted a powerful influence in the formation of 
pnests. their character and institutions. The priests, called 
Druids, had the entire control of all religious rites and affairs, 



EARLY BRITAIN. 3 

the administration of justice, the education of youth, and the 
settlement of difficulties between tribes and nations. They 
exercised almost absolute power over the people, and punished 
severely any refusal to submit to their decisions, or to carry out 
their commands. 

8. The Druids worshipped several deities, and some of the 
heavenly bodies ; taught the doctrine of the transmigration of 
souls ; and on great occasions offered human sacrifices, con- 
fining their victims in wicker cages, and setting Doctrines 
them on fire. The doctrines and mysteries of the and worship. 
Druids were not committed to writing ; and their dwellings 
were in secluded forests of oak, which, with the mistletoe grow- 
ing upon the trees, were held very sacred. At Stonehenge, on 
Salisbury Plain, in Wiltshire, Southern England, are still to be 
seen the supposed remains of a Druidic temple, consisting of 
an altar, surrounded by two circular rows of upright stones, sev- 
eral feet in height. 

9. There were bards who celebrated in song and with music 
the genealogy and heroic deeds of princes and leaders, and 
who kept alive among the people the love of liberty, Bards and 
and the courage and prowess which were so strik- propnets. 
ingly exhibited in all their conflicts and dealings with other 
tribes and nations. Prophets, also, pretended to foretell future 
events ; and astronomy was a prominent subject of instruction 
among the Druids. It is probable that these prophets made 
use of astrology and magic in their religious rites and cere- 
monies. 

10. At evening on the 1st of May, when the fields had been 
sown, at the ripening of the crops in summer, and upon the 
completion of the harvest in autumn, the Druids 

Festivals. 

were accustomed to build fires, and offer sacrifices, 
upon high places, to secure the favor of their deities upon the 
products of their fields ; and from these practices have probably 
been derived the English festivals of May Day, Midsummer 
Eve, and Harvest Home, or All Hallo ween. 



4 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

1 1 . The Druids were numerous ; and although not, strictly 
speaking, the ruling class, they attained considerable intellectual 
The Druids development, and were evidently more powerful 
as leaders. w ith the people than were the kings and chiefs ; 
and their influence was generally for peace and for the common 
welfare. They inculcated' implicit obedience to their rulers and 
to all authority. 

12. From the little that is found in recorded history regard- 
ing the Britons, it is supposed that they were a part of the great 
Britons; Indo-European emigration which took place from 
their origin, the East in remote antiquity, and spread over the 
greater part of Europe. They were probably not the first in- 
habitants of the country. In caves and mounds fragments of 
rude pottery and other relics have been found, which point to 
an untamed prehistoric race as the earlier occupants of the land, 
whom the Britons either exterminated, or drove northward. 

13. When the Britons were first known to the other European 
nations, their mode of life was rude and wild. The island was 

spoken of as a land of vast forests, in which bears, 

Civilization. , . , T . 

wolves, and deer were numerous. In the interior 
the tribes were migratory shepherds and herdsmen ; but near 
the seacoast, and especially on the southern and south-eastern 
shores nearest the continent, where they had probably come in 
contact with other peoples, they seemed to have taken some 
of the first steps towards civilization. Instead of the rude and 
scant clothing of those dwelling inland, they made a kind of 
coarse cloth, and wore tunics and trousers. They also built 
better habitations, and were more permanent in their places of 
abode. Vast herds of cattle roamed the forests and pasture- 
lands ; and horses were raised in great numbers, and trained 
with great skill. 

14. In the mining of tin, lead, and copper, they were very 
Mining and successful ; and these and other commodities pro- 
trade. duced by the natives brought traders from Tyre, 
Sidon, Carthage, and other Eastern countries, which must have 



EARLY BRITAIN. 



brought the people in contact with customs and manners more 
civilized than their own. The preparation and movement of 
the huge blocks of stone used in the Druidic temples, and the 
manufacture of war chariots, and swords of tin and copper, are 
evidence of some knowledge of the mechanic arts. Pins, 
needles, spoons, and many other articles of common use, made 
of bone, bronze, and jet, have been found, which evidently 
belong to this period. Rings and bars of iron, and coins of 
bronze, were used for money. 

15. In modern English there are but few remains of the 
Celtic language, and those are found in some names of places, 
and perhaps in a few other words ; but the Welsh 
language is a modernized branch of the British 
tongue. This language has a rich vocabulary, and the remains 
of its early poetry are remarkable for striking images and 
expressions. 

16. Another branch of the Celts, the Gaels, are supposed to 
have settled in Ireland, and afterwards in Scotland. Some of 
the principal tribes were the Scots, so called from 
scuites, or sguits (wanderers) ; the Caledonians, or 
dwellers in the forests \ and the Picts, or painted people, 
clan of the Caledonians. 



Language. 



The Gaels. 




STONEHENGE RESTORED.' 



CHAPTER II. 

BRITAIN UNDER ROMAN OCCUPATION. 
B.C. 55 to A.D. 420, — 475 years. 

THE inhabitants of the southern part of Britain made 
greater progress in the arts of civilization than their 
The s&uth northern neighbors ; and became so famous in war, 
Britons. tnat tne y were invited across the channel by the 
Gauls to assist them in their wars with the Roman general, 
Julius Caesar. Caesar made this a pretext for invading Britain ; 
but hi s real motive, probably, was to carry his arms into a new 
count] y, and to add it to the dominion of the Roman Empire. 

2. In the summer season, B.C. 55, Caesar, with eighty ships 
and ten thousand men, approached the coast of Britain, near 
Cesar's first the present site of Dover, where his landing was 
invasion. fiercely resisted by the natives at the water's edge. 
After a severe conflict the Romans landed, drove back the 
Britons, and erected fortifications for their own protection and 
defence. A treaty of peace was made, but was soon after 
broken by the natives when they saw that a violent storm had 
destroyed several of the ships in which Caesar and his army 
arrived, also others which had followed him from Gaul with 
men and supplies. After one or two more sharp engagements 
the Britons were again defeated, and both parties gladly made 
another treaty of peace and friendship. Caesar immediately 
refitted a few of his shattered ships, placed his army on board, 
and returned to Gaul, having been in Britain only about three 
weeks, and at no time very far out of sight of the shore. 



43-] BRITAIN UNDER ROMAN OCCUPATION ■ 7 

3. In the following year Caesar returned with a large force 
to continue his conquests, and to chastise the faithless Britons 
who had failed to keep their stipulations. The Ca;sar , s 
natives opposed him in large numbers under Cas- second inva- 
wollon', called by the Romans Cassivelau'nus, — a 
powerful chief, who had conquered several neighboring tribes, 
and who was now at the head of a kind of confederacy of states. 
But the Britons could not long withstand the Roman mode of 
warfare. Caesar pursued them across the Thames, took their 
capital, St. Alban's, made a treaty of peace with Caswollon, and 
with many prisoners returned again to Gaul. The results of 
Caesar's two expeditions to Britain were simply the occupation 
of a small part of the island for a short time. He cannot be 
called its conqueror. 

4. For nearly a century Britain was unmolested by the Ro- 
mans, and during this period some of the native kings were 
conspicuous in history. One of them, Cunobeline, Britain 

or Cymbeline, furnished the name and subject of under native 
one of Shakspeare's plays. Some of Cymbeline's ings * 
coins, bearing his own image and inscription, are still in existence. 

5. About A.D. 43 the Emperor Claudius sent an army to 
Britain under Plautius (Plau'-she-us), who made extensive con- 
quests ; and Claudius himself visited the island, and 

Claudius. 

received the submission of some of the vanquished 

natives : but the war of subjugation, with great cruelties on 

both sides, continued for many years. Car'adoc, 

, 3 J ' Caradoc. 

or Carac tacus, a powerful Welsh chief, successfully 

defied the Roman power for a long time, but was finally de 

feated, and sent as prisoner to Rome. 

6. In the reign of Nero, Sueto'nius overran the country, and 
captured Mona (now Anglesey) , — an island on the coast of 
Wales, and the principal seat of the Druids. The Suetonius; 
Britons made a desperate defence ; the women, with Mona - 
dishevelled hair and burning torches, rushing down to the 
water's edge, and mingling in the affray. But the Romans were 



8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [78. 

victorious, and the destruction of the place was complete. 
The sacred groves were cut down, and the Druids were burned 
in the fires they had lighted to consume the invaders. 

7. During this expedition of Suetonius, Bo-ad-i-ce'a, sister 
of Caradoc, and queen of the Ice'ni, one of the tribes in the 

eastern part of the island, took the field, at the head 

Boadicea. 

of a large army, to revenge the shameful treatment 
she and her daughters had received at the hands of the Ro- 
mans. With great boldness she attacked and captured Lon- 
don, which had then become an important trading-town, and 
put seventy thousand Romans to death. But her victory was 
of short duration ; for she was soon after defeated by Suetonius, 
when a merciless slaughter of eighty thousand Britons — men, 
women, and children — took place. To avoid capture, Boadicea 
ended her life with poison. 

8. But the Roman power was more fully established in Britain 
by Agric'ola, who came to the island about A.D. 78, His 
Britain victorious legions traversed the country even to the 
under Agnc- foot of the Grampian Hills ; and he sent a fleet 

around the north of Scotland, and down the west 
coast, thus first establishing to the Romans the fact that Britain 
is an island. Under this ruler the people were encouraged 
to cultivate the soil, to learn some of the useful arts, and to 
adopt a more civilized mode of life. 

9. But the occupation of the country by the Romans was 
maintained principally by the presence of their armies, and at 
Picts and times with varied success. Frequent raids took 
Scots. place from the northern part of the island by the 
Picts, or Caledonians, and by the Scots, who had come over 
from the north of Ireland. These people were wandering tribes 
of shepherds and hunters, and they gave the Romans and Brit- 
ons much trouble. To prevent these inroads, Agricola estab- 
Roman Hshed a line of forts, and Antoni'nus constructed a 
walls. wa u f ear th an d stone across the country from the 
Frith of Forth to the mouth of the Clyde. Some years later 



78.] BRITAIN UNDER ROMAN OCCUPATION. 9 

another wall was erected by Hadrian from Solway Frith to the 
Tyne, and subsequently this was strengthened by an additional 
wall by the Emperor Seve>us. 

10. Britain became a flourishing province under Roman 
occupation, which covered a period of about four hundred and 
seventy-five years. It was usually the policy and Roman influ- 
practice of the Romans to plant their own institu- ence - 
tions, as far as possible, in their colonies, and to furnish from 
their own numbers the principal officers for government and 
administration. The people of Britain were generally submis- 
sive from necessity, but were never fully subdued. Though 
reduced at times to a state of servitude, the severity of then 
treatment was much mitigated by some of their masters ; and 
the government provided for them by the Romans was probably 
better than they had ever been able to establish among them- 
selves. The petty tribes had formerly wasted their strength, 
and reduced their numbers, by their numerous wars with each 
other, and in that way had been prevented from making prog- 
ress and improvement. They had no national capital or centre, 
and no strong bond of union ; but under Roman control their 
tribal differences were lessened, and they became more united 
as a whole people. 

1 1 . The Romans were road-builders ; and they constructed 
many excellent military roads in Britain, connecting their most 
important towns and ports ; and so thoroughly were 

they made, that the course of a portion of them can 
be traced at the present day, and they constitute some of the 
principal thoroughfares of England. Lighthouses were erected 
along the coast for the guidance of the mariner. 

12. The towns of the Britons were greatly improved under 
Roman influence ; and they were adorned with temples, theatres, 
market-places, baths, and palaces. It is supposed Towns and 
that Westminster Abbey, in London, is built upon their ruins - 
the former site of a temple erected to Apollo, and that St. Paul's 
Cathedral stands on the spot once occupied by the Roman 



io HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 1^\ 

temple of Diana. Modern excavations for sewers and deep 
foundations in London, and other places in Britain, frequently 
reveal the sites and ruins of Roman villas, camps, forts, walls, 
gates, and pavements ; and the great variety of articles in com- 
mon use thus found, and now preserved in museums, give us 
some indications of the extent to which the conquerors intro- 
duced their mode of life among the Britons. There are arti- 
sans' tools, balances for weighing, wheel-tires, bronze horse-bells, 
ploughs, locks and keys, and iron nails, swords and shields, 
spear-heads, and iron manacles. Among articles for household 
and personal use, are lamps, vases, and drinking-cups, vials, and 
other glasswares, shoes and their latchets, buckles, armlets, 
beads, rings, brooches, pins, needles, hairpins, knitting-needles, 
and spoons, ear and tooth picks, and knives. Mile-stones to 
mark the Roman ways have been discovered • also cinerary 
urns, and fragments of a great variety of pottery. 

In some parts of London the Roman pavements and other 
remains are found about eighteen feet below the present surface 
of the streets. 

13. More attention was given than formerly to the style and 
appearance of dwelling-houses, and they were much better 
Mode of Hv- adapted for the comfort and convenience of their 
in g- occupants. Many Britons travelled in Gaul, and 
visited Rome, and came home with improved ideas of living. 
Glass windows were introduced, and the interior of the walls 
of houses were painted. Plates, goblets, and urns must have 
been in use, as fragments of them have been occasionall) 
unearthed. Leaden water-pipes are found ; and wells are no^ 
in existence, filled with water, which were dug by the Romans. 

14. The practice of painting their bodies, common among 
the early Britons, was now discarded, and the people were clad 
Changes in m better garments. Schools were established by 
habits. Agricola and others, and the British youth of the 
higher class were taught the Roman tongue ; but the common 
people, in their own affairs and intercourse, stubbornly refused 



42o] BRITAIN UNDER ROMAN OCCUPATION. n 

to use the language of their masters, but still employed their Own 
vernacular, the Celtic. The sciences were studied, and the arts 
cultivated, and British workmen acquired a reputation for skill 
that made their services in demand on the Continent. 

15. In mining, the Romans improved upon the methods of 
the Britons, and became producers of iron, gold, and silver, in 
addition to lead, tin, and copper, formerly worked 

by the natives. At Worcester there have been dis- 
covered the remains of a Roman iron-furnace ; and near it, as 
well as at Birmingham and other localitieSj are now found large 
heaps of cinders and waste thrown off from such furnaces. 
Rusty Roman coins are also found in considerable numbers 
among these ruins. These metals, together with chalk and 
lime, were exported in large quantities to the various provinces 
of the Roman Empire. 

16. After the Romans so effectually vanquished the Druids, 
they introduced their own religion among the natives of the 
island. But in course of time Christianity began to 

get a foothold in Britain. At what particular time 
it was introduced is a matter of much uncertainty : perhaps it 
took place in the second century. In the fourth century British 
bishops and ecclesiastics became known for their learning and 
influence ; and at a religious council at Aries, in France, bishops 
were present as representatives from Britain. It is also said 
that the Bible was translated into the British tongue for common 
use. Some of the violent persecutions of Christians at Rome 
by the Pagan emperors extended to Britain ; and St. Alban is 
said to have been an heroic example of Christian martyrdom. 

17. But, early in the fifth century, vast hordes of barbarians 
from Northern Europe were threatening Rome and her prov- 
inces ; and the empire gave many signs of early The R 0man s 
dissolution. These alarming dangers compelled recalled, 
her to call home her forces ; and about A.D. 420 the last of 
her legions left Britain, and returned no more* 



CHAPTER III. 

SAXON CONQUESTS. — THE HEPTARCHY. 
420 to 827, — 407 years. 

NO sooner had the Romans left the island than the Picts 
and Scots renewed their warfare upon the Britons. The 
Picts and latter had lost somewhat of their early warlike spirit, 
Scots and were unable to repel their northern invaders. 

troub esome. ^y^ a merc il ess f oe on one s id ej anc [ the OCean 

on the other, they applied to Rome for assistance ; but their 
request was refused. 

2. During the last century or two of the Roman occupation, 
the east coast of Britain had often been visited by Saxon free- 
Sax<5n free- booters and pirates from the north-western part of 
booters. Germany. They had made some settlements, and 
had caused the Romans considerable annoyance and trouble. In 
their dire distress the Britons now turned to the Saxons for aid. 

3. The history of this period is mingled with much that is 
probably but little more than wild romance. But the com- 
Hengistand monly- received account is, that a Saxon army, 
Horsa. under the command of two brothers, Hengist and 
Horsa, — invited, perhaps, by the British prince Vor'tigern, — 
came over in A.D. 449 ; and by their assistance the Picts and 
Scots were driven back to their own territories. 

Saxon con- 4- The Saxons, finding the country superior ten 

quest of their own, invited over their countrymen from the 

continent ; and for some years there continued to. 

arrive re-enforcements of Saxons, Jutes (Jutlanders) , and Angles^ 

12 



449-1 SAXON CONQUESTS.— THE HEPTARCHY. rj 

or Engles, from the southern part of Denmark. These people, 
in the course of time, took possession of Britain, reduced the 
inhabitants to submission, and compelled them to leave the 
country, or to retreat to the mountains for safety. 

From the Angles is derived the name England ; that is, 
Angle-land). 

5. Violent contests between the Saxons and the Britons 
took place, and the land was the scene of bitter strife for more 
than a hundred and fifty years. King Arthur, a 

t> -.• 1 1 . 1 -1 . King Arthur. 

British champion, was a most determined antagonist 
of the Saxons, and held them in check for many years, and is 
said to have defeated them in twelve different engagements. 
The history of this renowned prince and his Knights of the 
Round Table has been much celebrated in poetry and romance, 
but is regarded by many as fiction. Lord Bacon observes, 
that " in his acts there is enough of truth to make him famous, 
besides what is fabulous." Some of the Celtic tribes were un- 
conquered and unconquerable, and fled to the mountains of 
Wales, where their descendants are the present inhabitants of 
that country. 

6. These Saxon invaders were heathen, and they endeavored 
to destroy whatever of Christianity was left in the Saxons and 
island by the Romans. Churches were burned Christianity, 
bishops and priests were slain at the altar, and an indiscriminate 
massacre of the nobility and the people took place. 

7. As the Saxon tribes came to Britain at different times 
and under different leaders, they did not form one united king- 
dom, but several petty states, varying at different The hep- 
times in number and extent. Seven of these lead- tarch y- 

ing states, or kingdoms, are known in history as the Saxon 
heptarchy; and their names were, 1. Kent, the corner king- 
dom ; 2, Sussex, the South Saxons ; 3. Essex, the East Saxons ; 
4. Wessex, the West Saxons; 5. East Anglia, the land of the 
Angles in the East ; 6. Northumbria, the land north of the 
Umber, or Humber ; 7. Mercia, the border-land, or the land 
marched over. 



14 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [457- 

Kent was settled by the Jutes ; Essex, Wessex, and Sussex, 
by the Saxons ; and East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria, by 
the Angles. The Britons and Scots called all these tribes 
Saxons, and they have been quite generally so called in history ; 
but among themselves they early adopted the general name of 
the English. » 

8. The establishment of these states occupied a period of 
about a century and a half; and Kent, the first Saxon kingdom, 
was founded A.D. 45 7, by Hengist, in less than ten 
years after his first landing upon the island. Row- 
ena, his beautiful daughter, married Vortigern, the British chief; 
and she is said to have had great influence over her husband 
and her father in the stirring events of that period. 

Kent occupied a small corner in the south-eastern part of 
Britain. It was a region of great fertility and of many natural 
advantages, and for more than a hundred years was 
an important and influential state. One of its kings 
best known in history was Ethelbert, who married Bertha, a 
Christian lady, and a daughter of Caribert, King of Paris. It 
was into this kingdom that Christianity was first introduced 
among the Saxons, probably about A.D. 597, by Augustine, a 
Benedictine monk sent from Rome for that purpose, with several 
companions, by Pope Gregory I. It is related that once, while 
passing through the market-place of Rome, Gregory, then a 
priest, observed some British slaves for sale, noticeable for their 
fair complexion and light hair. "Who are these?" said Greg- 
ory. " Angles," replied the slave-merchants. " Not Angles, 
but Atigels, they shall be," replied Gregory ; and he formed the 
plan of sending the gospel to Britain, where it had once been 
introduced during the period of Roman occupation ; but it had 
since given way before the heathenism of the Saxons. Being 
elected Pope not long afterwards, he proceeded to carry out 
his project of missionary labor. 

Ethelbert was at first opposed to the new religion, but after- 
wards became one of its first converts ; and his royal example 



4770 SAXON CONQUESTS. — THE HEPTARCHY. 15 

was soon followed by the greater part of his subjects. Augus- 
tine was made Archbishop of Canterbury, the Saxon capital, 
with supreme power over all the British churches ; and that 
city has since continued the ecclesiastical metropolis of Great 
Britain. Not long afterwards, the spread of Christianity was 
quite rapid and general among the Saxons. The idols of their 
temples were destroyed, and the temples themselves converted 
into Christian churches. Meantime the Britons, or Welsh, 
occupying the western side of the island, who had been con- 
verted to Christianity by the Romans, had never fallen back to 
heathenism, but had continued in their new faith, and, with 
bishops and other officials, had kept up their separate ecclesi- 
astical organizations. 

Ethelbert reigned more than fifty years ; and he subjugated 
several of the neighboring states after many fierce contests with 
Ceaulin (Keaulin), King of Wessex, and others. He prepared 
a code of written laws for his people, in which penalties for a 
long list of offences were prescribed with much minuteness ; 
and it is said that the people were generally happy, and that 
property was well protected by law. His marriage with a French 
princess, and his intercourse with the ecclesiastics from Rome, 
naturally led him to encourage his subjects to cultivate an 
acquaintance with the people of France, Italy, and other coun- 
tries upon the Continent, which undoubtedly had a civilizing 
influence upon his people. The reign of Ethelbert was bene- 
ficial to his subjects, and honorable to himself. But many of 
his successors were conspicuous only for their wars, their treach- 
ery, and their cruelty. 

9. Sussex, south-west of Kent, was founded in 477 by Ella, 
a brave Saxon chief, upon whom the people bestowed the title 
of Bretwalda, or defender of Britain, thus showing 
his superiority in the confederacy of chieftains. 
This title was also borne by Ethelbert and six others. Cissa, 
the son of Ella, was said to have had a reign of the extraordinary 
length of seventy-six years. 



1 6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [547 

io. Cerdic, another valiant Saxon, and a progenitor of the 
present royal family of England, founded Wessex in 519. This 
kingdom bordered upon "the Celtic tribes who had 
been driven to the western side of the island, and 
who offered a most stubborn resistance to Saxon invasion, espe- 
cially under the renowned Prince Arthur, who checked the 
advances of Cerdic. Wessex was a conspicuous state ; and 
one of its kings, Ina, for nearly forty years was so distinguished 
for his humane treatment of the Britons, and for his excellent 
system of laws, that his reign is regarded as one of the most 
successful of the Heptarchy. Another sovereign, Egbert, after- 
wards united all the states in one kingdom. 

11. Essex, including Middlesex, became a kingdom in 526 ; 
and one of its kings, Sebert, — a nephew of Ethelbert of Kent, 

— is said to have built Christian churches to St. 

Essex • 

Peter and St. Paul in London, on the sites of the 
Roman temples to Apollo and Diana, where now stand West- 
minster Abbey and St. Paul's Cathedral. 

12. North of the Humber was the little British state of 
Deira, and still farther north, and extending into Scotland, was 
Northum- Bernicia. In the latter, Ida, a chief of the Angles, 
bria - landed with many followers in 547, and subsequently 
the two states were united under the name of Northumbria. It 
was an important kingdom, with a varied and thrilling history, 
having many wars with the Picts, Scots, and Welsh, and was at 
times at the head of the Heptarchy. Its greatest king was 
Edwin, son of Ella, King of Deira. He married Ethelburga, 
daughter of Ethelbert of Kent, and did much for the improve- 
ment of his people. Under the influence of his wife and 
Paulinus, a bishop who had accompanied her from Kent, he 
embraced Christianity, and built a church on the site where 
now stands the famous York Minster. Paulinus was made 
Archbishop of York, the capital, successively, of Deira and 
Northumbria, and formerly also the capital of Roman Britain, 
and the residence of Hadrian, Severus, and other emperors 



575-] SAXON CONQUESTS. — THE HEPTARCHY. 17 

during their sojourn upon the island. Edwin is said to have 
built a stronghold on the site of the present Edinburgh Castle ; 
and from him the city took its name, which was originally 
Edwinesburg. Edwin was killed in a fierce battle which he 
fought with Penda, King of Mercia, and Caed walla (Kedwalla), 
a Welsh chieftain. 

13. Sigebert, King of East Anglia, which was 
founded in 575, established a school in 644, which 
afterwards became the University of Cambridge. 

14. The midland state of the Heptarchy was Mercia, which 
began in 586 ; and its position exposed it to numer- 

1W crci 3. 

ous wars with the other Saxon kingdoms, and with 

the Britons in Wales. It was the largest, and at times one of 

the most powerful, of the states. 

15. After the Heptarchy had continued for more than two 
centuries, Egbert, a descendant of Cerdic, ascended the throne 
of Wessex in 800. Owing to troubles in the king- 
dom, he had been an exile for some time at the 

court of Charlemagne (sharl-mahn) in France, where he had 
carefully studied the art of war and the science of government. 
He was warmly supported by the people, and by his prudence 
and valor soon succeeded in uniting all the kingdoms into one 
monarchy, in 827, under the name of England. But Egbert 
and several of his successors still called themselves Kings of 
Wessex. Some of the other states continued for a time to have 
kings or chiefs of their own ; but they were tributary to Egbert, 
who was the recognized head of the new kingdom. 

16. The history of the Heptarchy portrays the slow and toil- 
some steps by which the Saxon sea-rovers gained a footing in 
Britain, and laid the foundation of the English gov- 

, , ™ 1 r- The Saxons. 

ernment and character. 1 hey were a people ot in- 
domitable courage and energy, knowing no defeat, and acknowl- 
edging no master. By sea and by land they exhibited the most 
astonishing intrepidity and daring ; and the ferocity with which 
they betook themselves to depredation, plunder, and cruelty, 



1 8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [827. 

made them the terror of every people among whom they 
appeared. 

The early Saxons were of large size, with fair complexion, 
light hair, and blue eyes. They were intemperate in their habits, 
and often given to rioting and disorder. But after they had 
become accustomed to live in communities, and had abandoned 
somewhat their wandering habits and their piratical practices, 
and had come under the influences of Christianity, they began 
gradually to acquire habits of social order and of peace. 

17. The government of the Saxons in Britain was not abso- 
lute. The king or chief was elected, though generally taken 

from the family of his predecessor; and usually 
the choice seemed to fall upon the most worthy 
one, without strict regard to nearness of kinship. He was 
chosen by the Witenagemote, or Witan, — an assembly of wise 
men composed of the nobles and higher orders, including, after 
the introduction of Christianity, the bishops and abbots. This 
body assisted the king in the affairs of state and in the adminis- 
tration of justice ; while lower tribunals in the shires or coun- 
ties attended to local affairs. Fines of different degrees were 
the usual penalties for all the various grades of misdemeanor 
and crime, even for the taking of human life. Women were 
comparatively well treated. They could sue and be sued, and 
inherit and sell property. 

18. The people were divided into three classes, the highest 

of which comprised the nobles of high birth and 
official position, and the Thanes (Thegns) , — a 
lower order, who owned or occupied considerable land, and 
who rendered service to the king and higher nobles. 

The Freemen, called Churls (Ceorles), were principally hus- 
bandmen who occupied the land of the higher classes, for which 
they paid rent, chiefly in kind. They were obliged to serve in 
the army in case of invasion or war. 

The slaves constituted the most numerous class, and were 
principally captives taken from the Celtic tribes in war and 



827.] SAXON CONQUESTS. — THE HEPTARCHY. 19 

plundering raids, and a few people who were sold into bondage 
on account of inability to pay their debts, or fines imposed for 
misdemeanor. They were subjected to severe labor in the 
household and on the farm, and were badly treated ; but they 
could buy their freedom if able to do so. 

19. The religion of the Saxons, when they came to Britain, 
partook of their own wild and fierce nature. Woden was their 
principal god, who was the giver of warlike courage 

and victory ; and to him all the families of the kings gK 
traced their origin. Thor, like the Roman Jupiter, was the 
Thunderer, and the god of the sky and air ; and numerous other 
gods and goddesses were worshipped. The people believed in 
a future state, and thought those who fell in battle would enter 
at once the region of bliss, where they would be allowed to 
torment their enemies, and to quaff intoxicating drinks from the 
skulls of their fallen foes. They were very superstitious, and 
generally believed in witchcraft and fortune-telling. 

In the common English names of the days of the week, we 
retain the names of some of the principal Saxon deities, to 
whose worship particular days were set apart. The sun and the 
moon give us Sunday and Monday ; Tuisco, Tuesday ; Wednes- 
day and Thursday are named from Woden and Thor ; Friday 
from Freya, the wife of Woden ; and Seator, a marine deity, 
gives name to Saturday. 

20. The Saxons cultivated the soil, and raised cattle, sheep, 
swine, and fowls, in abundance. They were also iron, gold, and 
silver smiths, and carpenters, shoemakers, bakers, 

and cooks. Their dwellings were rude huts for the 
common people ; but there were houses of more comfort and 
convenience for the higher classes. They wore tunics and 
cloaks of linen and wool, also shoes. The hair of the noble- 
women was curled with irons, and that of the men was parted 
in the middle. The food consisted of meat, fish, wheat and 
barley bread, and fruits ; but the poorer classes were not able 
to use much meat or wheaten bread. Mead, ale, and sour milk 



20 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [827. 

were the common drinks. " Silver coins of this period are still 
in existence ; but they probably had none of gold, and perhaps 
not of copper. 

21. There is no evidence that the Saxons brought a written 

language with them to Britain ; but, during the period of the 

Heptarchy, learning received some attention from a 

Education r J ' ° 

andiitera- few of the higher classes, although the common 
ture * people showed little fondness for knowledge or for 

books. Hence a few names only in literature have come down 
to us from this period. Gildas, a British historian, lived in the 
sixth century; Caedmon (Kedmon), an Anglo-Saxon poet who 
wrote upon biblical and scripture subjects, died about 680 ; 
and Bede (since called the "Venerable Bede"), a very learned 
scholar, wrote an ecclesiastical history of the Angles early in 
the eighth century, and some other works, including a Saxon 
version of the Gospel of St. John. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SAXON KINGS.— DANISH INCURSIONS. 
827-1017, — 190 years. 



Egbert. 


Alfred. 


Edwy. 


Ethelwolf. 


Edward the Elder. 


Edgar. 


Ethelbald. 


Athelstan. 


Edward the Martyr. 


Ethelbert. 


Edmund I. 


Ethelred II. 


Ethelred I. 


Edred. 


Edmund II. (Ironside) 



SCARCELY had Egbert established and regulated his in- 
fant monarchy (827) when he found himself assailed by 
formidable enemies in the Danes, or Northmen, Danish in- 
whose depredations form a prominent feature in cursi ° r *s. 
the early history of England, and who continued for upwards 
of two centuries to be a scourge to the country. The swift 
ships of these bold freebooters, bearing the ominous standard 
of the Black Raven, became the terror of every bay and inlet 
on the coast. The object of their early expeditions was plun- 
der ; but afterwards they began to make settlements, and to 
wage war with the people for the possession of the soil. 

2. Egbert had fierce conflicts with the Danes ; but, although 
once defeated by them, he finally gained a signal Egbert vic- 
victory over them and their allies the Welsh. His torious - 
death occurred soon after, and he was succeeded by his son 
Ethelwolf. 

3. From 838 to 871 the throne was occupied successively 
by Ethelwolf and his three sons, Ethelbald, Danish raids 
Ethelbert, and Ethelred. During these four continued, 
yeigns the country continued to be in a constant state of alarm 



21 



22 HISTORY OF ENGLAND- [87 L 

from the frequent and oftentimes sudden raids of the Danish 
adventurers and pirates, whose path was everywhere marked by 
robbery, burning, and murder. 

4. The reign of Alfred the Great, the youngest son of 
Ethel wolf, and the sixth king of England, which began in 871, 
Alfred and forms a distinguished era in the early history of the 
the Danes. monarchy. In one year he defeated the Danes in 
eight battles. But by a new irruption they extended their 
ravages, and forced him to solicit a peace. He was compelled 
to seek his safety for many months in an obscure part of the 
country, disguised in the habit of a peasant; and lived in a 
herdsman's cottage as a servant. In this humble situation the 
herdsman's wife is said, on one occasion, to have ordered him 
to take care of some cakes that were baking by the fire ; but 
he forgot his trust, and let them burn, for which she severely 
reprimanded him. 

5. Success having rendered his enemies remiss, and his fol- 
lowers having gained some advantages, he left his retreat ; and, 
Danes de- in order to discover the state of the hostile army, 
feated. ne entered the Danish camp in the disguise of a 
harper. He excited so much interest by his musical talents, 
that he was introduced to Guthrun, the Danish prince, and re- 
mained with him some days. Having discovered the unguarded 
condition of the Danes, he returned to his adherents, and with 
a large force attacked his enemies by surprise, and defeated 
them with great slaughter. Alfred promised to give the Danes 
territory for a home, if they would embrace Christianity. Guth- 
run and his followers accepted the condition ; and Alfred as- 
signed them the eastern part of Mercia, giving it the name of 
Danelagh, which they occupied for several years. 

6. After having restored tranquillity to his distracted king- 
dom, he employed himself in cultivating the arts of peace, and 
Condition of in raising his subjects from the depths of wretched- 
the people. ness? ignorance, and barbarism. Cities and towns 
which had been destroyed by the Danes were rebuilt, a regula 



B93-] SAXON KINGS. 23 

militia was organized, and ships of war were constructed to pro- 
tect the coast. Men of learning, and of skill in the various arts, 
were invited from other countries, that he might avail himself 
of their wisdom and counsel. 

7. After a few years, the reign of peace was again interrupted 
by war. Guthrun died ; and, soon after, his followers were 
found aiding their countrymen in new expeditions Danish raids 
against England for plunder and pillage. In 893 renewed, 
the famous sea-king Hastings, with a fleet of two hundred and 
fifty ships, appeared upon the coast, and for more than three 
years continued to be the terror of all England. Some of the 
inhabitants joined the invaders ; but, after many desperate 
engagements, Alfred was victorious, and the vanquished sea- 
rcvers were compelled to retire. 

8. The few remaining years of Alfred's reign were spent in 
most judicious measures for the improvement of his Alfred's last 
kingdom and people ; and he died in 901, after a da y s - 
reign of thirty years. 

9. The testimony of history is unanimous in praise of this the 
most excellent of England's sovereigns. A successful warrior, 
— having fought in person more than fifty battles by A warrior 
land and by sea, and having taken the first steps to- and states- 
wards a standing army and a navy for England, — man * 

he was still greater in the arts of civilization and peace. Some 
writers ascribe to him the first division of England into coun- 
ties ; but it is more than probable that a similar division existed 
at a much earlier date. He collected the laws of the Saxons, 
and formed them into a new code, and established a tribunal 
for the administration of justice, which may, perhaps, have sug- 
gested to a later sovereign (Henry II.) the trial by jury. 

10. Navigation and commerce, manufactures and „, J 

; Trade, man.. 

useful inventions, found a liberal patron in Alfred ; ufactures, 
and he was himself the originator of a device for and inven_ 

tions. 

measuring time, clocks and watches being then un- 
known. For this purpose he used wax candles, with notches at 



24 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [925. 

regular distances, which by their burning measured the inter- 
tervals of time ; and, to protect them from currents of air, he 
enclosed them in lanterns of thin horn. He also encouraged 
the people to improve their dwellings and churches, and to 
adopt many conveniences of life to which they had been un- 
a friend of accustomed. As a friend of learning, his influence 
learning. was highly useful. He was the patron, and perhaps 
the founder, of the University of Oxford. He also instituted 
schools j and, for the instruction of his people, he translated a 
number of works into the Saxon language, and ordered that 
" all good and useful books " then written in Latin should be 
changed to the language of the people. 

1 1 . The character of Alfred shines forth with distinguished 
lustre in a dark age. He was one of the greatest and best 
His charac- sovereigns that ever sat on a throne, — equally 
ter and excellent in his private and his public character, 
grea nes pj e wag distinguished for his personal accomplish- 
ments both of body and mind, and is reputed the greatest war- 
rior, legislator, and scholar of the age in which he lived. 

12. Alfred was succeeded in 901 by his son Edward, sur- 
named the Elder, from his being the first English monarch 
Edward's °^ tnat name - He resembled his father in military 
successful genius ; and his reign was a continued but success- 
ful struggle against the Northumbrians and Danes, 

who were powerful in the north of England. By his conquests 
he added to his dominions several states which before had been 
merely tributary, and he was the first sovereign who assumed 
the title of King of all England. 

13. Athelstan, an able and popular sovereign, son of Ed- 
ward the Elder (925), was successful in his wars with the 
Atheistan's Danes, Northumbrians, Scots, Irish, and Welsh ; 
reign. anc [ ne enlarged and strengthened his kingdom. He 
caused the Scriptures to be translated into the Saxon language, 
and enacted a law which conferred the rank of thane, or gen- 
tleman, on every merchant who made three voyages to the 
Mediterranean. 



94I-] SAXON KINGS. — DANISH INCURSIONS. 25 

14. Edmund, brother of Athelstan (941), made some con- 
quests, and his reign promised to be a successful one ; but he 
was suddenly assassinated in his own banqueting- Edmund as- 
hall by the notorious robber Leolf, previously ban- sassinated. 
ished by him, and whom, on this occasion, he had ordered out 
of his presence. He was succeeded by his brother Edred. 

15. Edred (948) was not a man of great talents; but he 
succeeded in reducing the rebellious Danes in Edred's 
Northumbria to a state of subjection, and garri- rei s n useful - 
soned some of the important towns to secure the future peace 
of his kingdom. His principal counsellor was Dunstan, abbot 
of Glastonbury, a man of noble birth, great talents, 

. , J '. , , ' ° ' Dunstan. 

varied accomplishments, and extraordinary energy, 

and who gained a wonderful ascendency over the sovereign and 

the people. 

16. Edwy, or Edwin, son of Edmund, succeeded Ed- 
red (955) at the early age of sixteen. His reign was an 
unhappy one. Dunstan was making strenuous Edwy > s con . 
efforts to reform the secular (married) clergy, in test with 
which measures he was opposed by the king. Ed- uns an ' 
wy also married his cousin Elgiva, in opposition to the counsels 
of Dunstan, and Odo, archbishop of Canterbury ; and it is said, 
that, on the occasion of a festival following his coronation, he 
suddenly left the festivities to enjoy the society of his queen 
and her mother. This was offensive to the Saxon nobles ; and 
Dunstan and a companion followed the king to his apartment, 
and forced him back to the banqueting-hall. The king was 
indignant at this act, and thenceforth became the bitter enemy 
of Dunstan. 

17. With the consent of Edwy, and by the advice of the 
queen, the property belonging to the community of Glastonbury 
was seized. Dunstan was expelled from his monas- Dunstan 
tery, and soon after obliged to leave the kingdom, banished, 
The Mercians revolted against Edwy, and declared 

in favor of his younger brother Edgar; and Durban, with 



26 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [959- 

whom they sympathized, was recalled. Odo declared Edwy's 
Eigiva marriage unlawful; and Elgiva was arrested and 

murdered. sent mt0 Ireland, from whence she soon after es- 
caped, and attempted to join Edwy, when she was seized, and 
cruelly put to death. A series of afflictions followed Edwy, 
who died soon after (in 958), after a reign of less than four 
years, and was succeeded by his brother Edgar. 

18. Edgar's reign (959) was one of peace. He en- 
couraged trade, and kept a powerful fleet, by means of which 
a beneficial he was able to hold the Danes in check, and to 
reign. protect the commerce of his people. He imposed 
a tax upon the Welsh nobles, payable in wolves' heads, — a 
circumstance which probably gave rise to the story that he freed 
his kingdom from wolves. But wolves did not disappear from 
England until some time after the reign of this king. 

19. Edgar promoted Dunstan to the archbishopric of Can- 
terbury, and made him his chief counsellor ; and having heard 
Edgar's mar- of the extraordinary beauty of Elfrida, daughter of 
riage. t } ie £ ar i f Devonshire, he sent Athelwold, his 
favorite, to ascertain the truth of it. Athelwold, overcome by 
the charms of Elfrida, on his return assured the king that the 
account of her beauty had been greatly exaggerated ; and he 
obtained the king's permission to marry her himself. But the 
king, having afterwards discovered the treachery of his favorite 
put him to death, and married Elfrida. Edgar's private charac 
ter and conduct were not good. 

20. Edgar was succeeded by Edward (975), his son by his 
Edward the first marriage, who was assassinated in the fourth 
Martyr. y ear f n i s re ig n) an d nineteenth of his age, at the 
instigation of his mother-in-law Elfrida ; and from this circum- 
stance he was surnamed the Martyr. 

21. Ethelred II., the son of Edgar and Elfrida, succeeded 
Etheired's (978) to the throne at the age of eleven years. He 
weakness. was a wea k monarch, surnamed the Unready. 
He married Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II. 



roo2.] SAXON KINGS. — DANISH INCURSIONS. 27 

The Danes committed many depredations upon the kingdom, 
and Ethelred's cowardly policy was to bribe the invaders to 
retire. To raise money for this purpose he imposed upon the 
land a tax called " danegeld," or Dane money ; pay- 

, . . , , Danegeld. 

mg to his enemies at one time sixteen thousand 
pounds, and at another twenty-four thousand pounds. When 
these invasions became frequent, and the tax burdensome, such 
of the Danes as the recent invaders had left behind were 
massacred by order of the king, at the Festival of St. Brice 
(1002), without distinction of age or sex. Among the slain 
was a sister of Sweyn, king of Denmark, with her husband and 
children. 

22. When the news of this barbarous transaction reached 
Denmark, it fired every bosom with a desire of vengeance ; and 
a large army of Danes, under their king, Sweyn 

Sweyn. 

(who was the grandson of Beatrix, the daughter of 
Edward the Elder), invaded and ravaged the country. Ethel- 
red fled to Normandy, and Sweyn was acknowledged (1013) 
sole king of England ; but he died before his coronation, and 
Ethelred was again restored. The latter, dying not long after- 
wards, was succeeded (10 16) by his son Edmund, surnamed 
Ironside from his strength and valor ; but his abilities and 
courage were insufficient to save his sinking country. 

23. The Danes, who had now obtained control of the ciown 
in England, were kindred of the Saxons, belonging 

to the same great Teutonic family, and having a 
similar language and religion. 

Among the few words of probable Danish origin found in the 
modern English are names of persons ending in son, as John- 
son, Nelson ; and names of places in by (a town or village) 
and in wich (a station), as Whitby, Derby, and Norwich, or 
North Station. 



CHAPTER V. 

DANISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 

1017 to 1066, — 49 years. 

Canute the Great. Canute II. 

Harold I. Edward the Confessor. 

Harold II. 

ON the death of Sweyn, his son Canute, or Knut, wa> 
proclaimed (1017) king of England by the Danes 
Canute and Having expelled a younger brother who had 
hischarac- usurped the throne of Denmark, Canute asserted 
his claim to the crown of England, invaded the 
country with a numerous army, and compelled the king to 
divide his dominions with him. Edmund was soon after 
murdered by the treachery of Edric, his brother-in-law; and 
Canute became sole monarch. He was the most powerful 
sovereign of his time in Europe, and was styled the Great from 
his talents and successes. In the former part of his reign he 
was severe, but in the latter part mild and beneficent ; and he 
died lamented. 

2. Canute was succeeded (1036) by his son Harold, whose 
principal amusement was the chase, and who obtained the sur 
Harold. name of Harefoot from his swiftness in running. 
Canute 11. Q n jjjg d ea th (1039) the throne was filled by his 
brother Canute II., or Hardicanute, the last of the Danish 
kings. The reigns of these two monarchs were short, and sig- 
nalized by few important events ; and both died without issue. 

3. The English now shook off the Danish yoke, and restored 

28 



io 4 :.] DANISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 29 

(1041) the Saxon line in Edward the "Confessor," brother 
of Edmund Ironside, though the rightful heir of Edward's 
this line was Edward, surnamed the " Outlaw," the history, 
son of Ironside, who was now an exile in Hungary. Edward's 
mother (the queen of Ethelred II.) was Emma of Normandy, 
a province in the north-western part of France, which was over- 
run and occupied early in the tenth century by the Northmen, 
— tribes of Scandinavian origin. These people were afterwards 
called Normans. During the reign of the Danish kings in 
England, Edward had passed some time in exile in Normandy 
and Flanders. He was educated in a monastery in Normandy, 
and was noted for his piety and benevolence, but was not a man 
of great abilities nor of much ambition. 

Emma had married for her second husband King Canute ; 
and upon the death of that monarch, Edward crossed the 
channel with a fleet to lay claim to the throne of England. 
But he was opposed by his mother, who was now regent of 
Wessex, and was obliged to return. A few years afterwards, 
during the reign of Harold I., Edward and his brother Alfred 
were invited to England, when Alfred was treacherously slain ; 
but Edward effected his escape, and fled to Flanders. 

4. Upon the death of Hardicanute, the English people, tired 
of Danish rule, sought for a king of their own race Edward 
and blood. Edward, who had been kindly treated m &de king, 
by Hardicanute, was now brought forward as a claimant for the 
throne, as being the nearest of the royal line then in the country. 

But Edward's fondness for the Normans made him unpopular 
with some of his people ; and a leader among this class was 
Godwin, Earl of Wessex, one of the most powerful E ari God- 
and influential noblemen of the land, and a thorough win - 
hater of the Normans. He was of sturdy Saxon blood, and 
with his six sons acted an important part in the history of his 
time. But Godwin became reconciled, and is said to have 
consented to Edward's accession to the throne, on condition 
that his own daughter Edith should become the wife and queen 



30 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1041. 

of the new monarch. Edward is said to have treated his wife 
with indifference and coldness ; and he also deprived his mother 
of her large possessions, and confined her in a monastery, on 
account of her former opposition to his plans for securing the 
throne. 

5. For a time Edward's reign was comparatively peaceful, 
and the country was prosperous. The bitter feeling which had 
Edward's l° n & existed between the Saxons and the Danes, 
reign. and which had been the source of almost incessant 
strife, gradually gave way to more friendly relations, and the 
two races became more assimilated as one people. 

But Edward was a Norman in feelings, as well as by educa- 
tion ; and his partiality for that people led him to fill the princi- 
pal offices of his court and of the church with Normans, and 
Norman-French was spoken at court, and was used in legal 
documents. This gave great offence to the people, and often 
led to serious difficulties. On one occasion Count Eustace of 
Boulogne, a brother-in-law of the king, paid him a friendly 
visit, and while on his return to France, he had a personal 
difficulty with some of the citizens of Dover, in which several 
Godwin in persons were slain. Edward called upon Godwin 
disgrace. to punish the people of Dover for their insults to 
his relative ; but the stanch old Saxon refused, upon finding that 
the count was the aggressor, and he insisted that the affair should 
take due course of law. This led to a complication of difficul- 
ties, which finally resulted in driving Godwin and his family into 
exile. Not long afterwards, he and his son Harold returned 
with a fleet and followers, and secured their restoration to their 
former possessions and power ; and Edward's Norman adher- 
ents, whom he had appointed to numerous offices, were com- 
pelled to leave the country. 

6. Godwin did not long survive his return to power; and 

his earldom and other possessions fell to his son 

Harold, who now became the leading nobleman of 

England. He was brave, a person of many noble qualities, and 



io4t.] DANISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 31 

a great favorite ; and as a leader in Edward's armies he did good 
service in the subjugation of Wales. Harold was very ambitious, 
and the object of his ambition was the throne of England ; and 
for a long time he secretly used all his power to accomplish his 
purpose. 

7. But there was another aspirant for the throne in the per- 
son of William, Duke of Normandy. William was a second 
cousin of King Edward, and had visited his royal Duke of 
cousin in England during Godwin's banishment, Normandy, 
when he was treated with great kindness and consideration. 
During the visit, as William afterwards claimed, the king signi- 
fied his intention to make him his successor upon the throne. 

8. Harold, having occasion to visit Normandy, was ship- 
wrecked upon the coast, and taken prisoner, and confined. 
But Duke William came to his relief, ransomed Harold and 
him, and took him to his court at Rouen, where the duke, 
he treated him with great kindness and hospitality. William 
finally disclosed to Harold his plans for securing the sovereignty 
of England, and extorted from him an oath to assist him in the 
undertaking; but, after his return to England, Harold openly 
exerted himself with energy to secure his own accession to the 
throne. Edward was old and infirm ; and Harold represented 
that Edgar Atheling, the sole heir, was a youth of most violent 
temper and of weak mind, unfit to rule England, and that there- 
fore the royal family should be set aside. Great exertions were 
made to increase his own popularity, and to set forth his abili- 
ties, bravery, and experience in the most favorable light. Ere 
long success crowned his efforts. 

9. Edward died soon after completing and consecrating 
Westminster Abbey on the site where Sebert, King of Essex, 
had built a church to St. Peter more than four cen- _. . ., 

Edward s 

turies before. He was buried in the abbey, and death and 
some time afterwards was canonized by the Pope, character - 
and received the surname of the Confessor. It was during this 
reign that occurred those events in Scottish history that form 
the basis of Shakspeare's tragedy of " Macbeth." 



32 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1041. 

Edward is represented as a man of fine personal appearance, 
with hair and beard of snowy whiteness. He was not a bril- 
liant man, but was pious, kind, and just. He was thought to 
be favored with the special privilege of curing the scrofula, or 
king's-evil. This power was long supposed to have descended 
to his successors ; and the superstitious practice of touching 
for that disorder was continued by the sovereigns of England 
from this period till the revolution of 1688. 

10. Harold claimed that the dying king, in language indis- 
tinctly uttered, named him as his successor ; and he was elected 
The new by the Witan, crowned, and proclaimed king as 
king. Harold II., on the very day of Edward's funeral. 
But his reign was short and full of trouble. His brother Tostig, 
Earl of Northumberland, had been banished by the inhabitants 
for his tyranny and oppression ; and, not succeeding in securing 
his own restoration, he became a bitter enemy of Harold, and 
sought revenge by collecting a fleet in Flanders, and invading 
Norwegian England. After being repulsed from the southern 
invasion. coast, he was joined by Hardrada, a giant king of 
Norway, with a much larger fleet ; and they entered the mouth 
of the Humber, disembarked their hordes of freebooters, and 
commenced their depredations upon the country and people. 
York was surrendered to them ; but Harold soon hastened with 
an army to the scene of conflict, and was disposed to make 
peace with his brother; but, when Tostig asked what favors 
would be granted to Hardrada, Harold replied, " Seven feet of 
English earth for a grave." This broke off negotiations ; and 
a great battle was fought at Stamford bridge, near York, in which 
Tostig, Hardrada, and many of their followers, were slain, and 
the surviving invaders were compelled to retire. So great was 
the carnage at this time, that the bones of the slain were said 
to have whitened the battle-field for half a century afterwards. 

11. Meanwhile in the province of Normandy, active prepara- 
tions were taking place for an expedition fraught with momen- 
tous consequences to the English government and people, 



io66.] DANISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 33 

When William heard of Harold's election and coronation, he 
was highly indignant, and immediately despatched Harold op- 
an embassy to him, reminding him of his former posed, 
oath, and demanding the surrender of his kingdom. Harold 
replied, that his oath had been given through fear of violence, 
that he had been made king* by the suffrages of the nation, 
and that he had neither inclination nor right to surrender his 
charge. 

William determined at once to enforce his claims. He was 
a person of great popularity, and pre-eminent for his courage 
and noble bearing ; and when he publicly announced wuiiam's 
his intended expedition, great enthusiasm was mani- preparation, 
fested in neighboring states, and many princes and valiant lead- 
ers, with numerous followers, hastened to enroll themselves under 
his leadership. His own subjects were at first indifferent, and 
reluctant to sanction or assist an enterprise whose field of 
operations was out of their own country. But William finally 
succeeded by his personal address in enlisting their co-operation 
and assistance. The Pope also gave his gracious approval, and 
sent to the duke a consecrated banner. 

12. In the early autumn of 1066, the Normans crossed the 
English Channel with nearly a thousand vessels and _, 

J The Nor- 

an army of sixty thousand men, and landed in mansinEng- 
Sussex, and pitched their camp on a range of hills land# 
at Senlac, near Hastings. 

Harold was at a banquet in York, soon after his successful 
repulse of the Norwegian invasion, when he heard that the 
Normans were encamped on English soil. He immediately set 
out for London, with all the forces he could collect, without 
delay, and hastened to confront the invaders, and intrenched his 
army on the hills opposite the Norman camp. The night before 
the battle is said to have been spent by the English in revelry 
and riot, and by the Normans, in prayer and consecration. 

13. Early on the morning of Oct. 14, the conflict began, and 
raged for nearly the entire day. Solid column met solid column, 



34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1066. 

and the slaughter was terrible. Several times during the day, 
Battle of victory seemed about to perch on the English ban- 
Hastings. n ers ; but thrice William adroitly feigned retreat, and 
drew his foes down into the plain, where he suddenly wheeled 
upon them, and inflicted most signal defeat. Harold received 
an arrow in his eye, and was soon after despatched by the lances 
of French knights, of whom Count Eustace was one. Two 
of Harold's brothers also perished in the midst of the conflict. 

The battle of Hastings was decisive. Although the English 
at London soon chose as their king Edgar Atheling, the young 
grandson of Edmund Ironside, he was never 
crowned ; and the Norman duke hastened to im- 
prove the advantage his recent victory had given him. The 
submission of Dover, Canterbury, and Winchester, soon fol- 
lowed ; and London, after some resistance, surrendered to 
William, who was chosen king, and whose descendants have 
to this day occupied the throne of England. 

14. This event, commonly called the Conquest, is one of the 
importance most important landmarks in English history. It 
of the event, introduced the Norman element into the kingdom 
and upon the throne, and had an important bearing upon the 
future of the country, and its relations to other lands. 

15. More than eleven hundred years had now elapsed since 
the island of Britain appeared in history. The Celts, the Roman 
Growth of occupation, and the Saxon and Danish invasions 
the nation. anc j settlements, had all contributed to the growth 
of the English nation and to its civilization. These different 
elements had become so blended, that the people were more 
like one nation than they had ever before been. 

16. The state of society at this time was not refined. Some 

progress was made under the Saxons, but much 
was also lost by the devastations and barbarous 

practices of the Danes. 

But there was a wide difference between the condition of the 

nobles and of the lower classes. The nobles held large tracts 



io66.1 DANISH KINGS.— SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 35 

of land under the king, for whom they were obliged to fight 
and to render assistance when called upon ; while the people 
occupied and tilled the soil, with similar obligations to the 
nobles, by whom they were often greatly oppressed. 

17. Manual labor, except in the arts, was performed chiefly 
by slaves, some of whom enjoyed a degree of freedom, while 
others were bought and sold with the land upon 

which they were born, but could not be separated 
from it. Many of the freemen were compelled to work a certain 
number of days each year for the lord, or owner of the land, 
receiving in pay the rent of land for their own cultivation. 
There was a feeling of dependence by all orders of people upon 
those above them in rank, and also a kind of obligation, on the 
part of the higher classes, to provide in a measure for their 
dependents. This feature in the relation of the different classes 
seems to have been brought by the Anglo-Saxons from their 
early home on the Continent. 

18. The dwellings of the people were built in clusters, or 
villages, around which were common fields for pasturage, in 
care of the village herdsmen and the pound-keeper. 

All could cut wood from the forests, and dig turf 

from the bogs, for fuel ; and deer and wild fowl could be hunted 

free, for there were no game-laws until the time of Canute. 

The dwelling of the nobleman, or lord of the village, usually 
consisted of one large room, which served as a family apart- 
ment, a banqueting-hall, and sleeping- room ; bunks or berths 
being arranged around the walls for beds, before which curtains 
were sometimes suspended. But the females had separate 
sleeping-apartments, called bowers, built outside. The attend- 
ants slept upon benches or upon the floor. Chairs elaborately 
carved were kept for distinguished guests, only benches and 
stools being in more common use. The fire was built in the 
middle of the room, the smoke escaping through an opening 
in the roof; and the floor, often of earth, was strewn with 
rushes or straw, to which flowers were added on special occa- 



36 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1066. 

sions. The windows were furnished with lattice or cloth, instead 
of glass, which had not yet come into common use ; and the 
walls were sometimes hung with tapestry and curtains of silk 
richly embroidered. But the dwellings of the lower orders were 
rude huts or hovels, covered with turf, and containing no furni- 
ture but a few rude benches for seats, and beds of straw and 
rushes. Cups, spoons, and dishes were rudely formed of horn, 
bone, and wood. Candles of tallow were used for lighting these 
huts, while those of wax were used by the higher classes. 

19. In the eighth century the dress of the males consisted 
of a linen under-garment, over which was a tunic of linen or 

woollen, open at the neck, and extending to the 
knees, with long sleeves reaching to the wrist. The 
borders and collar of those of the higher classes were orna- 
mented, and the garment was confined around the waist by a 
belt. Over this was worn a short cloak, fastened at the shoulder 
or breast with a kind of brooch. Linen or woollen drawers and 
stockings were worn, and shoes of leather formed coverings for 
the feet. The lower garments and the tunic of the poorer 
classes were often made of leather and untanned hide. The 
upper lip was shaven, but otherwise the hair and beard were 
worn long. The garments of the women were similar to those 
of the men, except that a long dress with full sleeves took the 
place of the short tunic, and the outer garment was a kind of 
mantle instead of a cloak. The hair was curled with hot irons, 
and dressed with much care ; and the head-dress consisted of 
a veil, or strip of linen or silk cloth, wound round the neck 
and head. They also wore necklaces, ribbons, ear-rings, and 
brooches. 

20. The Anglo-Saxons and Danes were great eaters, and 
those who were able had four meals a day. Food was abun- 
dant. For meat they raised cattle, sheep, swine, 
fowls, and goats, and hunted deer and hares ; and 

meats were salted for preservation. They had fish, such as 
salmon and herring, also oysters, lobsters, and eels ; and in 



io66.] DANISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 37 

cooking they boiled, baked, and broiled their food. Bread, 
sometimes eaten hot, was made from wheat and barley ; and 
beans, eggs, cheese, and honey, were in common use ; and 
mention is made of grapes, apples, pears, nuts, and figs. 

At meals, knives were used for carving, but not for eating ; 
and fingers supplied the place of forks, water being passed 
round after eating, with which to wash the hands. 

IW Cells 

The tables were spread with cloths so large that 
they covered the knees of the guests, and could be used as 
napkins. The people were all fond of exhilarating drinks, such 
as ale, mead, and wine, which were served in silver cups, and 
in horns ornamented with rims and knobs of silver. On festive 
occasions, both eating and drinking were carried to excess, and 
were accompanied by songs, dancing, and the harp. Public 
ale-houses were much frequented, and were the scenes of bois' 
terous conviviality and rioting ; but priests were prohibited by 
law from eating or drinking at such houses. 

21. The principal amusements were hunting, hawking, jug- 
glery, songs and instrumental music, chess, dice, and other 
similar games. Backgammon, which signifies " little Amuse . 
battle," originated with the Welsh. The musical ments. 
instruments in use were the harp, lyre, viol, horn, trumpet, drum, 
cymbal, and flute. The harp was probably introduced from 
Ireland, where music in early times was much cultivated, and 
where church music was especially noted for its excellence. 

22. The domestic life of the early English was very far above 
that of savage nations. The sexes were not separated at meals, 
nor on festive occasions. In household affairs and Domestic 

in society, woman was well treated, and exerted a life - 
good degree of influence. Personal cleanliness was regarded 
as a prime virtue ; the bath was in frequent use ; and children 
were well cared for at home. In case of poverty, a father could 
consign his son, after childhood, to slavery for a period of seven 
years, provided the boy consented to the contract. 

The marriage-ceremony was performed by the priest, and 



38 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [io6d 

was an occasion of joy and festivity. Before the age of fifteen, 
a girl could be given in marriage by her father at will ; but after 
that age she was allowed to select her own husband. Before 
marriage, the bridegroom gave a pledge to support his wife and 
her children in a style becoming her position in society. 

The women of the higher classes were skilful in the use of 
the needle, and spent much of their time in embroidering with 
golden and colored thread. In Bayeux, France, there is still 
preserved an historical tapestry, a pictorial representation of the 
Conquest, wrought with worsteds of various colors on a roll of 
linen two hundred and fourteen feet long and twenty inches 
wide. This is believed to have been made by English women, 
though some have attributed it to Matilda, the wife of the 
Conqueror. 

23. During the latter part of the Saxon period, agriculture 
received much attention. Farms were divided into pasture, 

meadow, and wood land ; but fences were not used, 
division-lines being formed by hedges, ditches, and 
brooks. The farmers used ploughs, rakes, sickles, scythes, forks, 
flails, wagons, and carts ; also mills for grinding grain. Bees 
were kept quite extensively, furnishing honey in great abundance, 
which was an important article of food, sugar being then little 
known. The raising of cattle was the leading industry ; and 
much attention was also given to sheep ; the warm, moist climate 
of the island being favorable for good pasturage. As the fields 
were not enclosed, many people were occupied in tending cattle, 
sheep, swine, and goats. Vegetable and flower gardens were 
cultivated to some extent. Forests were protected by law from 
destruction ; and the value of trees, especially the oak, walnut, 
and the beech, was determined according to the number of 
swine that could feed under them. 

24. The Anglo-Saxons acquired considerable skill in manu- 

facturing and in the various useful arts, and had 

Trades. . . ,..-,', 

quite a reputation as workers 111 iron and other 
metals, including the manufacture of jewelry. Such occupa- 



io66.] DANISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 39 

tions as masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, wagon-makers, armor- 
ers, weavers, tailors, and tanners and shoemakers, and others, 
were represented in the principal communities. But some of 
these were itinerant in the pursuit of their calling ; the black- 
smith with his portable forge and tools, and the shoemaker and 
the tailor with the implements of their craft, being accustomed 
to go round to the dwellings of the people, and to perform 
their work when their services were needed. Glass-making was 
learned from the French, and its use was slowly introduced. 

25. Ship-building and commerce were industries of consider- 
able importance. The oak of the island was noted for its 
strength ; and English ship-carpenters were skilful, commerce 
and held in high esteem. Foreign vessels, especially and traffic, 
from the East, came to the country for traffic ; and English ships 
visited the ports of Western Europe and of the Mediterranean, 
carrying cattle and other animals, wool, skins, the various agri- 
cultural products, lead, iron, and manufactured articles. The 
trade in slaves was quite active ; young men and women bought 
for the purpose being sent from the port of Bristol to Ireland 
for sale. Traffic was carried on to a considerable extent in 
barter, or the exchange of one commodity for another. About 
the close of the tenth century, the barter price of a slave was 
twenty shillings ; a horse, thirty shillings ; an ox, six shillings ; 
a cow, five shillings ; a swine, one shilling and threepence ; 
a sheep, one shilling ; and a goat, twopence. Land, also, was 
cheap, selling sometimes for four shillings an acre. But the 
value of money was much greater then than at the present 
time. 

26. The Witan, established by the early Saxons, continued 
to be the great Council or Parliament of the nation 

r ^ • t iri 1 - • • r • Government. 

tor making laws, and for the administration of jus- 
tice in its higher forms. Its principal meetings were at Christ- 
mas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. 

In courts of justice, a person accused of crime was acquitted 
if he could bring a number of friends, owners of property, to 



40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1066. 

swear to his innocence : otherwise he submitted to the trial by 
" ordeal," where he was compelled to walk over hot plough- 
shares, to hold hot iron in his hands, or to plunge 

Trials. . ' . . 

his arm into boiling water. If no harm from the 
ordeal was found upon his person at the end of three days, he 
was considered innocent. 

27. Long before the Conquest, Christianity was the religion 
of the nation, and every town and settlement had its church 

and priest. In the tenth and eleventh centuries 

considerable attention was given to the architecture 

of churches, which were generally built of wood ; though the 

one at York, built by Edwin, was of stone, with glass windows 

introduced from France. 

At times there was much corruption in the Church, and many 
of its officers were immoral and worldly ; but there is reason to 
believe, nevertheless, that its influence did much to improve 
the condition of the people, to furnish an asylum for the op- 
pressed, and to mitigate the evils of slavery. 

28. Before the time of Alfred there were no schools except 
the monasteries, which were institutions of learning as well as 

of religion. The Venerable Bede did much for the 
cause of learning as a teacher of monks and of 
youth, and by the preparation in Latin of text-books in nearly 
all branches then taught. Canute and others, during the century 
preceding the Conquest, founded several higher seminaries 
of learning, with which many distinguished scholars were con- 
nected. The principal branches taught in these schools were 
Latin, Greek, theology, astronomy, grammar, and arithme- 
tic. In these branches the monks were well versed ; also in 
painting, music, sculpture, and architecture. Dunstan was largely 
instrumental in introducing the Benedictine monks, who for a 
long time were the principal teachers of youth. These monks 
showed great skill with the pen in copying and illuminating books 
upon vellum, or parchment ; and it is to their labors that we are 
principally indebted for much of the ancient literature that haj 



io66.] DA NISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RES TO RED. 4 t 

been transmitted to modern times. But the common people 
were not educated ; and some of the Saxon kings could not 
write their names, but made their mark instead. The brothers 
of King Alfred never learned to read. The Saxons were a 
practical people, with strong common-sense and quick judg- 
ment ; but learning was not generally considered by them 
necessary, even among the high classes, except for those holding 
offices in the monasteries, and in connection with the Church. 
But physical education, and excellence in manly sports, were 
highly prized, and were attended to. To draw the strong bow, 
and wield the battle-axe, the broadsword, and the spear in war, 
and to engage in the chase, — where men sometimes found 
themselves in close personal combat with wild animals (which 
were then numerous), — rendered great physical strength not 
only serviceable, but necessary for success and safety. 

The first library mentioned in England is said to have been 
collected at the minster, or cathedral, in York. 

29. London was the most important town, with considerable 
f.rade. It is mentioned by the Roman writers of the first cen- 
tury, and it is supposed, that, a century or two later, i mpor tant 
the Romans surrounded it with walls. The East towns. 
Saxons made it the capital of their state (Essex) ; and, when 
Egbert united the states of the Heptarchy, he made it the me- 
tropolis of his new kingdom. It was soon afterwards sacked 
and burned by the Danes, but was rebuilt by King Alfred. 

The land along the riverside was marshy, and the streets 
were narrow and winding. There was no drainage, and the 
streets abounded in pools and rivulets reeking with 

London. 

filth, that sometimes caused sickness and disease of 
an epidemic and pestilential character. The dwelling-houses 
were constructed of wood, with thatched roofs ; the churches 
were crowned with wooden towers ; and beautiful flower-gardens 
were cultivated around the monasteries and other religious 
houses. The city was surrounded by several villages, which 
are now included within the present metropolis ; and beyond 



42 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1066. 

these were the country residences of the wealthy Saxons, with 
their orchards and pleasant fields. 

There were other towns of considerable importance, and 
some of them were of great antiqaity. Winchester, a town of 
the early Britons, was for a long time the capital of Wessex and 
of England. Manchester was a seat of the Druids ) and at 
Birmingham, in the kingdom of Mercia, now the great centre 
of the iron-industry, the Celts manufactured their arms before 
the Romans visited Britain. 

Chester, York, Exeter, Sheffield, Worcester (Wooster), Cam- 
bridge, Bath with its warm springs, and Brighton (the pleasant 
seaside summer resort), were all well-known Roman stations, 
and at the time of the Conquest were places of more or less 
business and importance. The sea-roving Saxons early saw the 
importance of the harbor of Harwich (Harridg), and from 
their day it continued to be an important seaport. 



30. London had not yet become the established capital of 

the kingdom, though some of the kings were crowned there, 

and at times had made it their place of residence 

Capitals. 

and of the meeting of the Witan. The Saxon 
kings held court wherever it pleased them ; their favorite place 
being Winchester, the old capital of Wessex. This city con- 
tinued to be the chief capital of the kingdom until after the 
reign of Henry II., and was one of the favorite residences of 
the sovereigns until the time of George I. Edward the Con- 
fessor held his court at one time in the village of Windleshore, 
on the Thames, now Windsor, the principal residence of the 
British sovereigns. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 43 

A. — Topics for Outside Reading. 

[References are to pages, unless otherwise indicated.] 

1. Britain under Roman Rule. 

Gardiner, " Student's History of England," I., pp. 10-25. 
Kendall, "Source-book," No. 1. Colby, "Selections from 
the Sources." Green, " Making of England," pp. 1-25. 

2. The Life of the English in the Fatherland : homes, 

government, habits in war and peace. 

Kendall, " Source-book of English History," No. 2. 
Colby, "Selections from the Sources," No. 4. Guest, 
" Handbook of English History," Ch. V. 

3. The English Conquest of Britain. 

Green, "Short History," pp. 7-16. Guest, Ch. VI. 
Kendall, " Source-book," No. 3. Colby, " Sources," No. 
5. Coman and Bates, " English History as Told by Eng- 
lish Poets," pp. 6-16. 

4. The Conversion of the English to Christianity. 

Creighton, " Stories from English History," I. Ken- 
dall, " Source-book," No. 4. Colby, " Sources," No. 6. 
Coman and Bates, 17. 

5. Alfred the Great. 

Gardiner, " Student's History," I., pp. 58-62. Guest, 
Ch. IX. Green, pp. 47-53. Colby, Nos. 8, 9. Kendall, 
No. 7. 

6. The Norman Invasion of England. 

a. Early career of William of Normandy ; Freeman, 
" Short History of the Norman Conquest," Ch. IV. 

b. The Norwegian invasion of England; Freeman, Cb. 
VI. Colby, No. 12. 

c. Battle of Hastings ; Freeman, Ch. VII., VIII. Gar- 
diner, I., pp. 91-100. 

Read, also, Coman and Bates, 26-45. Kendall, No. 13. 



44 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



B. — Topics for Special Reports. 

Note. — The references are not intended to be complete. The pupil should use 
all possible sources of information. 

1. Monasteries : rules ; services to England. 

Creighton, " Social History of England." Gardiner, I. 
Creighton, " Stories from English History," III. 

2. Caedmon, the first English poet. 

Creighton, " Stories," II. Any history of English Lit- 
erature. 

3. Methods of trial and punishment in early England. 

Kendall, No. 6. Gardiner, I., 32. 

4. Country life in England before 1066. 

Creighton, " Social History," 1-4. Kendall, No. 9. 
Gardiner, I., 70-71, 75-77. 



C — Map Work. 

For general reference, Gardiner's " Atlas." 

1. Mark on an outline map the Thames, Mersey, Humber, 

Severn, Ouse and Trent Rivers. Show, by colors, the 
location of coal, iron and tin deposits, arable land, 
swamps. 

2. Describe the course of the chief Roman roads, and state 

why they took the course which they did. 

3. Britain about 600 a.d., showing location of Angles, 

Saxons, Jutes and Britons. Locate Thanet, London, 
Aylesbury. 

4. England by the treaty of Wedmore (Chippenham). Lo- 

cate Athelney, Ethandun, Wedmore. Why important ? 












PART II 

THE FEUDAL PERIOD. 

FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO (HENRY VII.) THE 

TUDOR FAMILY. 

1066 to 1485, — 419 years. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE NORMAN FAMILY. 

1066 to 1 154, — 88 years. 

William I., the Conqueror. Henry I. 

William II., Rufus. Stephen. 

WILLIAM I., known as William the Conqueror, was 
crowned at Christmas (1066) in Westminster Abbey, 
When the Saxons and the Normans were asked, William's 
each by their own bishop, if they would have Wil- coronation. 
Ham for their king, both peoples signified their assent with loud 
applause. This noise was mistaken by the Norman soldiers, 
outside of the abbey, for a hostile demonstration against the new 
king ; and they immediately set fire to the neighboring houses, 
when a great tumult occurred. But the ceremony of coronation 
and anointing went on, and William took oath to govern as 
justly as the best of the Saxon kings had governed before him. 

2. Although William was in possession of the south-eastern 
part of England, a considerable portion of the kingdom was 
still in revolt against his authority ; and nearly four State of the 
years were spent in wars to secure the consolidation kingdom, 
of his realm. But many of the nobility, including Edwin and 

45 



46 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [ T0 66. 

Marcar, the powerful earls of Mercia and Northumbria, and 
Edgar Atheling, gave in their submission to the king, either 
before, or soon after, his coronation. 

3. He seemed anxious to govern acceptably to the people 
of London ; yet he built in their midst a fortress, now a part of 

the Tower of London, and filled it with soldiers, 
that he might hold in check any symptoms of dis- 
content or disloyalty. This was his policy wherever he went ; 
and many of the castles and strongholds of England had their 
origin in his reign, including one he built on the site of the 
present palace of Windsor. He confiscated the lands of Harold 
and his friends, and gave them to his Norman followers and 
favorites, who were promoted to the principal offices of impor- 
tance ; and he also caused the Norman language to be adopted 
in the service of the church, as well as in the courts of justice. 

4. Accompanied by a retinue of distinguished English noble- 
men, William spent the summer following his coronation in 

Normandy, looking after his Continental possessions. 

The management of affairs in England during his 
absence was left in care of his half-brother Odo, Bishop of 
Bayeux, and William Fitz Osborn ; but these officers did not 
at all times govern wisely. The building of castles for Norman 
garrisons, and the exclusion of Saxons from office to make places 

for Norman officials, went on, and occasioned much 

dissatisfaction among the English. Frequent oppo- 
sition to Norman oppression was manifested ; and an open revolt 
of the people in some parts of the country seemed immanent, 
when, late in the autumn, William suddenly returned from 
Normandy, and took measures to quell the rising storm. He 
proceeded to London, and, by his presence and skilful manage- 
ment, secured the co-operation of the nobility and people. But 
there were mutterings of discontent at the north and the 
west. 

5. After holding the winter session of the Witan, he marched 
against Exeter, a strongly fortified city in the south-west, which 



io6 9 .] THE NORMAN FAMILY. 47 

he besieged, and compelled to surrender. The mother and 
sons of Harold were in the city \ but they escaped v and left the 
country. He made two expeditions to the north- Exeter and 
east, quelling insurrections, and fortifying such York, 
positions as would enable him to check the future movements 
of the insurgents. Two castles were built and garrisoned at 
York. 

6. During the year 1069 the most formidable uprising of 
the people took place which William had been called upon to 
encounter. In the west the spirit of hostility was 
bold and aggressive ; and in the north-east the 
people were joined by the Danes, who came in a large fleet, 
either to regain the position they once held in England, but had 
lost, or to assist the English in their attempt to rid themselves 
of their Norman masters. The fleet entered the 
Humber, where it was joined by another from Scot- 
land, under Edgar Atheling, and by a number of English earls 
and their numerous followers. The combined forces immedi- 
ately moved upon York, where the Norman garrison felt secure 
within their castles ; although they immediately set fire to the 
neighboring houses, that the invaders might not use their mate- 
rial to fill up the castle ditches. The fire spread Disaster at 
with amazing rapidity, and continued to rage for York, 
two or three days, consuming the greater part of the city, with 
its ancient cathedral. The Normans sallied forth from their 
strongholds to repel the invaders ; but they were completely 
defeated, the castles destroyed, and the garrison, numbering 
three thousand, put to the sword. 

When the news of this disaster reached William, while hunt- 
ing in Dean Forest, on the Severn, he swore terrible vengeance 
upon the Northumbrians. He immediately pro- William's 
ceeded with a large force to York, which he found movements, 
deserted. The Danes had retired to their fleet in the Humber, 
and gave no further trouble ; and as in the following spring, 
when joined by another of their fleets, under the command of 



4 8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1069. 

King Sweyn, they entered the Thames, and then withdrew with- 
out doing harm, it is believed that in both instances William 
tried successfully the effect of bribery upon these sea-roving 
adventurers. 

7. William's Christmas season was spent in repairing his 
castles, and in plans for making an example of this rebellious 
^ . district that should admit of no doubtful interpreta- 

Devastation ± 

in Northum- tion ; and his plans were formed and carried out 
bna- with a deliberation and energy worthy of a better 

cause. Sending forth his troops, he laid waste the whole coun- 
try, from the Humber northward beyond the Tees, for a hundred 
miles. Every human habitation and other buildings, with furni- 
ture and farming utensils, were burned ; domestic animals were 
killed ; and of the inhabitants, those who offered resistance were 
put to death ; while others fled to the woods and the marshes, 
many of whom afterwards returned to the smoking ruins of their 
homes, and perished of starvation. One hundred thousand 
lives are said to have been lost in this work of devastation. 
The desolation of the land was complete. Fifteen years after- 
wards it was spoken of as a " waste ; " and even at the end of 
half a century, it is related that the country for more than sixty 
miles was "totally uncultivated and unproductive." 

This act of William savors more of Vandalism than of legiti- 
mate warfare, and has ever been severely condemned ; but, 
How re- while he had no wolfish delight in shedding blood, 
garded. or in causing misery to others, it was his policy to 

leave no foe unconquered, and no aggressive enemy unpunished. 
Those who were friendly and loyal to him shared his confidence 
and generosity ; but those who opposed him, or plotted against 
him, found that his vengeance was quick and sure. 

8. From York, the king led his army across the country to 

Chester, an old Roman town, where he quelled an 
insurrection, and ordered the erection of a castle. 
This virtually completed the Conquest ; and William was now 
the acknowledged sovereign of his realm, although occasional 



1069.] THE NORMAN FAMILY. 49 

revolts of a local character required his attention. Scottish 
invaders were several times driven back into their own country ; 
an expedition was made against Wales ; and Here- Minor re- 
ward, a rebel Saxon, intrenched himself with his volts, 
followers upon the island of Ely, in the fen country of Cam- 
bridgeshire. William laid siege to the island, using flat-bot- 
tomed boats, and constructing a causeway through 

Ely 

the marshes. The nature of the country made the 
siege a very difficult one, but the monks of Ely came to 
William's assistance. They were fond of good living ; but the 
siege cut off their supplies, and they showed him a way of 
approach to the island, by which he speedily compelled the 
insurgents to surrender. 

9. Several years afterwards, while upon the Continent, the 
king had a serious difficulty with his oldest son Robert, who 
rebelled against him because he could not have the A f am ii y 
duchy of Normandy bestowed upon himself. Father trouble, 
and son met in battle, clad in armor, and not knowing each 
other, until William, having been wounded, called for help ; 
when Robert, recognizing his father's voice, immediately asked 
his forgiveness, — a favor which the stern old Norman granted 
very grudgingly. 

10. The king's favorite recreation was hunting ; and, although 
there were several royal forests for that purpose, he wished to 
have another near his palace at Winchester. For New Fo rest 
this purpose he laid waste the country for thirty and laws, 
miles in extent, destroying more than thirty parish churches 
and all the dwellings of the people, who were driven out, and 
obliged to seek homes elsewhere. This was called New Forest. 
A hunting forest includes not only woodland, but open land 
uncultivated and unoccupied. This act could not be called a 
war measure, like the devastation of Northumbria, but seems to 
have been done to gratify William's excessive fondness for mere 
sport. His forest laws were very severe, reserving to himself the 
almost exclusive privilege of killing game, and making it as 



5° 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



[1085. 



great a crime to kill an animal without permission as to kill a 
man. He "loved the tall deer as though he were their father ; " 
and whoever killed a deer or a boar had his eyes put out. 




11. The most notable event in the reign of the Conqueror 
was his survey of the kingdom in 1085, the results of which 

Doomsday Were re- 
Book, corded in 
a book called Dooms- 
day Book. This book, 
in two volumes, is still 
preserved; and con- 
sidering the time in 
which it was made, 
and the thoroughness 
of the survey, it is 
probably one of the 
most remarkable his- 
torical documents in 
existence. 

The record gives 
the different classes 
of people, as barons, 
thanes, inferior land- 
owners, tenants, slaves, 
and " free women." 
The list of offices and 
occupations is quite full. In the upper classes there were 
chamberlains, stewards, butlers, constables, and treasurers, pro- 
viders of the . king's carriages, standard-bearers, hawk-keepers 
and bow-keepers, foresters, hunters, law men, and mediciners. 
Of the common workmen there were goldsmiths, carpenters, 
smiths and armorers, farriers and potters, ditchers, fishermen, 
millers, salters, bakers, tailors, and barbers, also mariners, 
watchmen, moneyers, and minstrels. On the farm there were 
ploughmen, bee-keepers, shepherds, neatherds, goatherds, and 



A NORMAN KNIGHT. 



to3 5 .] 



THE NORMAN FAMILY. 



5 1 



swineherds. The ownership, extent, and value of land, is given, 
as grain land, meadow, pasture, and wood land ; also the 
marshes, whose rent was paid in eels. There is a list of vine- 
yards, gardens, salt-works, iron mines and works, and fisheries. 
The number of manors owned by the king and his favorites is 
given, and is very large ; and the number of dwellings, with their 
rents, is recorded for many of the principal cities and burghs, 
though not for Lon- 
don and a few other 
places. The enu- 
meration included 
churches and castles, 
and the number of 
houses destroyed and 
the land wasted for 
the building of the 
castles. Altogether, 
Doomsday Book 
gives us a very good 
index to the state of 
society, the occupa- 
tions of the people, 
and the products of 
the land, of England, 
for the latter part of 
the eleventh century. 




A SAXON PEASANT. 



12. The political 
and social system of England was greatly modified by the 
feudal system introduced by William. When he gained pos- 
session of the country, he claimed that the entire Feudal sys- 
land belonged to him by the right of conquest. tem - 
At first the lands of Harold's family and of some of the leaders 
of the revolts against him, were confiscated ; but the other 
occupants retained their possessions by paying a heavy rent, 
or ransom. After the survey, the country was divided into a large 



52 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1085. 

number of portions (some say sixty thousand), called "knight's 
fees." Many of these fees the king kept for his own use ; but 
the greater part of them were assigned to the earls, barons, and 
other officers, all of whom were called " tenants-in-chief," and 
who were obliged to swear allegiance to the king, and to defend 
him in all wars. These tenants were obliged to furnish, at the 
king's command, for every fee, one mounted soldier and attend- 
ants, to serve free for forty days in each year. The holders of 
these fees sublet portions to under tenants, who were also com- 
pelled to furnish service, either military or otherwise ; and all 
freemen and slaves were bound to, or were the property of, some 
master. It was essentially a military system, and for centuries 
was a heavy weight upon the progress of the country. It gave 
the king a ready and a large army when needed ; and the many 
taxes and exactions which it imposed, for the assumption and 
transfer of tenures and rights, also gave him a full treasury, 
especially when added to the frequent confiscations of property. 
The relation of the different classes under the Saxons had a 
seeming resemblance to some features of the feudal system : 
but the tenure of land was materially different with the Saxons ; 
there was less harshness and severity in the system of the Sax- 
ons, and more general and individual freedom. 

13. William was an avowed friend of the Church; but his 
ecclesiastical policy, like his management of civil and military 
William and affairs, made it necessary for him to displace English 
the Church, officials, to find places for the hordes of Normans 
who were constantly importuning for offices and their emolu- 
ments. Bishops and priests and their subordinates were alike 
compelled to vacate their offices and their livings. Even Stigand, 
the Archbishop of Canterbury, one of the officiating prelates at 
William's coronation, was not spared. The monasteries were 
searched ; and the money, deposited there for safety by those 
who feared confiscation, was seized and converted into the royal 
treasury. The king gave much time and personal attention 
to ecclesiastical affairs, and was instrumental in the found- 



1085.] THE NORM A IV FAMILY. 



53 



ing or rebuilding of many cathedrals, abbeys, and churches, 
and in the introduction of an improved style of architecture. 
As to the standard of the Church, intellectual and moral, it was 
probably raised somewhat ; but the relations between the Norman 
clergy and the English people were neither cordial nor profit- 
able in a religious sense. Yet many of these Norman prelates 
were men of great learning and ability, and of fine tastes ; and 
they made their influence felt in all the civilization of the age. 

William's half-brother, Bishop Odo, who was also Earl of 
Kent, was active and influential in church affairs, but became 
arrogant and ambitious, and even aspired to the 
Papacy. This so exasperated the king, that he 
immediately seized him and cast him into prison, and, when 
remonstrated with by Odo, remarked that he did not imprison 
the Bishop of Bayeux, but the Earl of Kent. 

When Harold fell at Hastings, William made a vow to erect 
a sacred monument on the very spot where Harold's standard 
was placed ; and that vow was fulfilled in subse- Battle 
quent years by the erection of Battle Abbey, — an Abbey, 
extensive structure, as its ruins fully testify. 

14. The latter part of William's reign was spent in Normandy, 
where he had a war with the kings of France, during which 
much loss of life and destruction of property took William's 
place. Having burned the town of Mantes, William last days- 
was riding through its smoking ruins, when his horse stumbled 
and fell, from which his royal rider received a serious injury, and 
was carried back to Rouen. It is related, that, when he became 
sensible that his end was near, he expressed much sorrow and 
contrition for the blood he had shed and the misery he had 
caused in his numerous wars. To his son Robert, 

Bequests. 

then in Paris, he left the duchy of Normandy ; the 
sovereignty of England was bestowed upon William, who imme- 
diately set out to take possession ; and to Henry he gave five 
thousand pounds of silver, realized from the possessions of 
Queen Matilda, who had died a few years before. As soon as 



54 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1135- 

the king ceased to breathe, his attendants all fled, taking as 

nlunder whatever articles were within their reach ; and the body 

of the dead conqueror was left alone. A friend 

His funeral. . . . 

conveyed it to Caen ; and, as the procession neared 
the church which William himself had built, a great conflagra- 
tion broke out in the town, and again the corpse was deserted, 
and left alone in the street. Having been taken into the church, 
it was about to be lowered into the grave, when a person cried 
out that the land upon which the church was built had been 
seized from his father without pay ; and the ceremony was not 
completed until money was raised to satisfy this demand. 

15. William possessed great abilities, both as a statesman and 
a warrior. He ruled England with a strong hand, and left the 
William's impress of his genius upon all her institutions. He 
character. W as not greatly beloved by his subjects, for he in- 
truded upon .them a foreign people and a foreign civilization ; 
and his unprincipled greed for wealth, and the inflexible military 
element of his character, were not calculated to make him 
popular. Yet his court was one of brilliance and splendor. 
His personal appearance was fine, being tall and well propor- 
tioned ; and he is said to have been so strong that scarcely any 
other person in that age could bend his bow, or handle his arms. 

16. William II. (1087), surnamed Rufus from his red 
hair, was, like his father, ambitious and tyrannical, but inferior 
William ii. to nmi m talent, and without the generosity and 
and his reign, humanity which often governed the acts of. the 
Conqueror. After a reign of thirteen years, which was disturbed 
by insurrections, and by quarrels with the ecclesiastics, particu- 
larly with Anselm the primate, he was accidentally shot by Sir 
Walter Tyrrel with an arrow aimed at a stag in the New Forest. 

17. Henry I. (1 100) , surnamed Beauclerc, or the scholar, 
on account of his learning, was the younger brother of William 

Rufus. He took advantage of the absence of his 

eldest brother, Robert (1100), the rightful heir, who 

was on a crusade to the Holy Land, and secured the crown for 



1 1 35-1 THE NORMAN FAMILY. 



55 



himself. He invaded his brother's . Norman dominions ; and 
Robert, on his return, was defeated, taken prisoner, and con- 
fined in Wales till his death. 

18. Henry married Matilda of Scotland, great- grand-daughter 
of Edmund Ironside ; and in this way the Saxon and Norman 
families were united. The latter part of his life was 
rendered disconsolate by the loss of his only son, Sax ' °" ° nd 
who was drowned on his passage from Normandy ; Norman 
and from that fatal moment he was never seen to ami ies ' 
smile. Henry was an able, courageous, and accomplished 
sovereign, but ambitious, licentious, and ungrateful. 

19. On the death of Henry (1135) the crown fell by right 
to his daughter Matilda, or Maud, married first to Henry V., 
Emperor of Germany, and afterwards to Geoffrey Accession of 
Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou. By the latter she had Stephen, 
several children, of whom the eldest bore the name of Henry. 
But Stephen, a nephew of the late king, the most popular 
nobleman in the kingdom, and distinguished for his ambition, 
valor, generosity, and courtesy, seized upon the crown. Matilda 
immediately landed in England, and, raising a small army, 
defeated Stephen, and took possession of the crown : but her 
haughty and despotic behavior caused a revolt ; and Stephen 
in his turn defeated her, compelled her to quit the kingdom, 
and again obtained possession of the throne. 

20. Henry, the son of Matilda, afterwards invaded England ; 
and, during the heat of the contest, Eustace, the king's eldest 
son, was removed by a sudden death. Soon after secures the 
this event the jarring interests of the two parties throne, 
were reconciled, Stephen being allowed to retain the crown 
during his life, and Henry being acknowledged as his succes- 
sor ; and this transaction was shortly afterwards followed by 
Stephen's death. During this reign England was harassed and 
desolated by a succession of civil contentions and wars, which 
were carried on with unrelenting barbarity, by the pillage and 
destruction of the inhabitants and the conflagration of the 
towns. 



56 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ["35- 

21. The political consequences of the wars of this reign, 
though disastrous in the extreme, could hardly be more so than 
Social were the injuries inflicted upon the social condition 
distress. f the people. So sharply were the lines drawn be- 
tween the adherents of Matilda and of Stephen, that neighbor- 
hoods and families were divided, and arrayed against each other 
in the bitterest strife. Nearly every baron, intrenched in his 
castle, became the head of a band who engaged in plunder 
and robbery almost without discrimination. Extensive tracts 
of country were uncultivated, and many considerable towns 
and districts were deserted by the inhabitants. The dead re- 
mained unburied; and the churches and graveyards became 
places of refuge to the poorer people, with their slender means. 
But even there robbery and conflagrations drove them forth, 
and everywhere misery seemed their only lot. 

22. Stephen was a man of fine presence, gentlemanly and 
courteous in his bearing, and very cheerful in his disposition. 
Stephen's Although thoroughly trained to war, and an able 
character. commander, he was neither wanton nor cruel. But 
when he violated his oath in regard to the succession, usurped 
the throne, and found the country plunged in civil war, he 
became the cause of much suffering and misery among the 
people. 

23. The second husband of Matilda, Geoffrey, Earl of An- 
jou, gave the name to the family of fourteen kings, his descend- 
ants, who followed the reign of Stephen. It was 

Plantagenet. , _ . . , . • r 

the custom of the earl to wear m his cap a sprig 01 
the broom-plant, the Planta genista, or Planta a genet, from 
which was derived the royal family name Plantagenet. Sur- 
names (sire names) began to be commonly used in England at 
this period. 



BRITISH ISLANDS , 

and portion of J^~/ 

CONTINENTAL EUROPE; C 
connected with 

English History. 



§9 



, > 



?°k 









*■ 




r 





n 


sa J 


C °rsicaA J 


7^ 


^ardill^T j- 


K B B 


i J^ £ i i^ 



l CO... BUFFALO. 



THE PLANTAGENET FAMILY, 

INCLUDING THE BRANCHES OF LANCASTER AND YORK 

CHAP. II.-IV. 

1154 to 1485,-331 years. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE PLANTAGENETS. 

1 154 to I399. — 245 years. 

Henry II. John. Edward I. Edward III. 

Richard I. Henry III. Edward II. Richard II. 

HENRY II., the first of the Plantagenets, — being de- 
scended by his grandmother from the Saxon kings, and 
by his mother from the Norman family, — succeeded Henry IIe 
to the throne (1154), to the great satisfaction of and his do- 
the nation. He is sometimes called Shortmantle, mimons ' 
because he brought the use of short cloaks out of Anjou to 
England. In addition to England, he possessed by inheritance, 
and by his marriage with Eleanor, heiress of the duchy of 
Guienne, nearly one-half of France, and during his reign he 
occupied Ireland ; so that he had more extensive dominions 
than any English monarch who had preceded him, and was the 
most powerful sovereign of his age. His marriage with Eleanor, 
whom Sir James Mackintosh calls " the firebrand of his family," 
proved to be the cause of much unhappinr.ss and trouble td 
himself and to the kingdom. 

57 



58 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. I.1170 

2. The different countries of Europe had for a century been 
Church and agitated with the contest between Church and State, 
state. or thg ecclesiastial and civil authority. This con- 
test reached its height in England during Henry's reign, of 
which it forms a prominent feature. Thomas a Becket, the 
Thomas a hero and martyr of the ecclesiastical party, a man 
Becket. f extraordinary talents and ambition, entered 
upon a prolonged and significant struggle with the king's 
party. During part of it he was compelled to seek personal 
safety in France. Becket had for some time held the office 
of chancellor, and lived in the manner of a prince; but, on 
assuming the office of Archbishop of Canterbury, he dis- 
missed his splendid train, cast off his magnificent apparel, 
abandoned sports and revels, and wore the habit of a monk. 

3. During the preceding reign the power of the clergy had 
increased to a most exorbitant height ; and Henry resolved to 
Council of restrain their authority, and reform their abuses ; 
Clarendon. an( } f or ^jg p ur p 0se he summoned in 1164 a 

general council of the nobility and clergy at Clarendon, and 
submitted to them sixteen propositions, which were agreed to, 
and are known under the title of the " Constitutions of Claren- 
don." With other things, it was enacted that clergymen 
accused of any crime should be tried by temporal judges. 
Becket, however, made the most resolute and formidable re- 
sistance to the changes proposed by Henry ; and, after a long 
series of contests with the haughty primate, the king was on a 
certain occasion so exasperated by his conduct, that he rashly 
exclaimed, " What ! among all those whom I have obliged is 
there none who will avenge me of that insolent priest? " The 
Death of words were scarcely spoken, when four knights of 
Becket. distinguished rank, interpreting the king's com- 

plaints as commands, set out with a resolution to avenge the 
wrongs of their sovereign. They pursued the prelate into the 
cathedral, and assassinated him before the altar. 

The account of this transaction filled Henry with consterna- 
tion, and caused great excitement in England. Becket died a 



H73-] THE PLANTAGENETS. 59 

martyr in the assertion of ecclesiastical authority, and the man- 
ner of his death effected the triumph of his cause. He was 
canonized by the Pope, by the title of St. Thomas of Canter- 
bury ; and numerous miracles were said to be wrought at his 
tomb, which became a celebrated resort of pilgrims. Henry 
publicly expressed his sorrow for having used the rash words 
which had occasioned the death of the primate, and expiated 
his offence by a humiliating penance at his tomb. Approach- 
ing within three miles of Canterbury, he dismounted, walked 
barefoot over the flinty road, which in some places he marked 
with blood, to the consecrated spot ; spent there, in fasting and 
prayer, a day and night ; and even presented his bare shoulders 
to be scourged by the monks with a knotted cord. The assas- 
sins did penance by a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where they died ; 
and this inscription was put on their tomb : " Here lie the 
wretches who murdered St. Thomas of Canterbury." 

4. The latter part of Henry's life and reign presents an in- 
volved and deplorable scene of family discord and contention, 
— sons against their father, wife against husband, Henry's 
and brother against brother. His three eldest sons, family 
Henry, Geoffrey, and Richard, instigated by their troubles - 
mother, and assisted by Louis VII., King of France, engaged 
in a series of rebellions, with a design to wrest the crown from 
their father. Queen Eleanor left her husband, and openly 
associated herself with the rebellion of her sons ; but she was, 
while making her way to the court of France, taken (dressed in 
male attire), brought back to Henry, and kept in confine- 
ment during the rest of his life. The queen had been irritated 
against her husband by his neglect and infidelities, and particu- 
larly by his attachment to Rosamond Clifford, who, under the 
title of the " Fair Rosamond," is described as a woman of ex- 
traordinary beauty, and who made a conspicuous figure in the 
romances and ballads of the times. 

Henry had manifested for his children, in their more early 
years, an affection bordering on excess ; and when he at last 
found that his youngest, unworthy, but favorite son, John, like 



60 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1189. 

all the rest, had joined the confederacy against him, he felt that 
his cup of affliction was full, gave himself up to transports of 
ungovernable grief, cursed the day of his birth, uttered impre- 
cations against his sons (which he could never be prevailed 
upon to retract) , and, worn out with cares, disappointments, and 
sorrows, died of a broken heart. 

5. The character of Henry may be regarded as a mixture of 
the qualities, good and bad, naturally arising out of strong in- 
Henry's tellect, a strong will, and strong passions. He was 
character. distinguished both as a warrior and a statesman, 
and he is ranked among the ablest and most useful sovereigns 
that have occupied the throne of England. The government 
was still despotic ; but the power of the barons was restrained 
during this reign, and the laws better administered than they 
had been since the conquest. Trial by jury, sometimes errone- 
ously ascribed to the time of Alfred, probably had its origin in 
this reign ; and Henry was the first who appointed travelling 
judges to hold court in different parts of the kingdom, thereby 
saving much time and expense to the accused and witnesses. 
He abolished the absurd practice of trial by ordeal, in use since 
the time of Edward the Confessor ; and taxes were first levied 
on personal estate in England during this reign. 

6. Henry was a patron of the arts, particularly of Gothic 
architecture ; and his reign is remarkable for being the period 
The arts ■ when many of the sumptuous English edifices were 
comforts of erected, and also for the introduction of various 

improvements with regard to the conveniences and 
comforts of life. The arts of luxury, however, were yet in a 
rude state. Glass windows were regarded as a mark of ex- 
traordinary magnificence ; and the houses of the citizens of 
London were constructed of wood, covered with thatch, and 
the floors were covered with straw. 

The description of the magnificence displayed by Becket 
while he was chancellor of the kingdom will afford some idea 
of the rude state of the arts. Nobody, it is said by contera- 



1189.] THE PLANTAGENETS. 61 

porary writers, equalled him in refinement and splendor. 
" Every day, in winter, his apartments were strewed with clean 
straw or hay, and in summer with rushes or leaves, that those 
who came to pay their court to him might not soil their fine 
clothes by sitting on a dirty floor." 

7. Richard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion (kur duh k-ong) i 
or lion-hearted, who succeeded his father Henry II. (1189), 
commenced his reign by a cruel persecution of the Richard T 
Jews. The frenzy for the crusades was at this and the 
period at its height in Europe. These crusades crusades# 
were military expeditions undertaken by the Christian nations 
of Europe for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre and Pales- 
tine from the Mussulmans. To a prince of the adventurous 
spirit and military talents of Richard these enterprises pre- 
sented irresistible attractions ; and, after making preparation, 
he, in connection with Philip Augustus of France, embarked 
on an expedition to the Holy Land. They took Acre in con- 
cert ; and Richard, especially, acquired great renown by his 
exploits, and defeated the heroic Saladin, the famous Saracen 
chief, in the battle of Ascalon, in which about forty thousand 
of the Saracens were slain. On his voyage homeward, being 
shipwrecked, he disguised himself, with an intention of travel- 
ling through Germany ; but he was discovered, and imprisoned 
by the emperor. He was ransomed by his subjects for the 
sum of three hundred thousand pounds, and, after an absence 
of nine years, returned to his dominions ; but he died not long 
after of a wound which he received at the siege of the castle 
of Chalus, in France, belonging to one of his rebellious vassals. 

8. Richard, who has been styled the Achilles of modern his- 
tory, was pre-eminent for his valor, which was almost his only 
merit. Even a century after his death his name Hischarac- 
was employed by the Saracen cavalier to chide his ter * 
horse, and by the Saracen mother to terrify her children. His 
ambition, tyranny, and cruelty were scarcely inferior to his 
valor. His laurels were steeped in blood, and his victories were 
purchased with the impoverishment of his people. 



62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [119a 

g. Richard was succeeded by his brother John (1199), who 

is supposed to have murdered his nephew Arthur, who was the 
son of Geoffrey, an elder brother, and the rightful heir. Philip 
Accession of Augustus of France supported the claim of Arthur 
John. t0 t h e throne ; and, on account of his being mur- 

dered, he stripped the English monarch of his possessions in 
that country. In consequence of this loss of his territories, 
John received the surname of Lackland. 

10. John excited against himself the displeasure of Pope 
Innocent III., who proceeded to lay the kingdom under an 
Quarrel with interdict, and afterwards excommunicated the king, 
the Pope. an( j absolved his subjects from their allegiance. 
The wretched monarch was intimidated into submission, and 
on his knees solemnly surrendered his kingdom to the holy see, 
consenting to hold it as the Pope's vassal. In this manner he 
made peace with the Church ; but he brought upon himself the 
universal contempt and hatred of his people. 

11. The barons, under the direction of Langton, the primate, 
formed a confederacy, and demanded of the king a ratification 
Magna of a charter of privileges. John, bursting into a 
Charta. furious passion, refused their demand. They im- 
mediately proceeded to open war ; and the king, finding him- 
self deserted, was compelled to yield. He met his barons at 
Runnymede, and, after a debate of a few days, signed and 
sealed (12 15) the famous deed of Magna Charta, or the Great 
Charter, which secured important liberties and privileges to 
every order of men in the kingdom, and which is regarded as 
the great bulwark of English liberty. John granted at the same 
time the Charter of the Forest, which abolished the exclusive 
right of the king to kill game all over the kingdom. 

12. The character of John is represented as more odious 
than that of any other English monarch ; debased by every vice, 
John's with scarcely a single redeeming virtue. His reign, 
character. though most unhappy and disastrous, is, notwith- 
standing, memorable as the era of the dawn of English freedom. 



I2i6.] THE PLANTAGENETS. dy 

13. Henry III. succeeded (12 16) to the throne at the age 
of only nine years, under the guardianship of the Earl of Pem- 
broke. He was a weak monarch, timid in danger, Henry m . 
presumptuous in prosperity, and governed by un- character 
worthy favorites. His lot was cast in a turbulent an reign * 
period of English history; and his long reign 'of fifty-six years 
consisted of a series of internal conflicts, though it was little 
disturbed by foreign war. The incapacity of the king was 
more productive of inconvenience to himself than of misery to 
his subjects. Under his weak but pacific sway the cause of 
popular freedom was advanced, and the nation grew more 
rapidly in wealth and prosperity than it had done under his 
military and more renowned predecessors. 

14. Towards the latter part of the reign of Henry, the 
barons, with Simon de Montfort (Earl of Leicester) at their 
head, entered into a confederacy to seize the reins Popular 

of government ; and they compelled Henry to freedom 
delegate the regal power to twenty-four of their 
number. These divided among themselves all the offices of 
government, and new-modelled the Parliament by summoning 
a certain number of knights chosen from each county. This 
measure proved fatal to the power of the barons; for the 
knights, indignant at Leicester's usurpation, concerted a plan 
for restoring the king. A civil war ensued. Leicester, at the 
head of a formidable force, defeated the royal army at Lewes, 
and made both the king and his son Edward prisoners. He 
compelled the feeble king to ratify his authority by a solemn 
treaty, assumed the character of regent, and called a parlia- 
ment, summoning two knights from each shire, and deputies 
from the principal boroughs (1265). This is regarded as the 
era of the commencement of the House of Commons, being 
the first time tnat representatives to Parliament were sent from 
the boroughs. 

Prince Edward, having at length regained his liberty, took 
the field against Leicester, and defeated him with great 
slaughter in the famous battle of Evesham. In this battle 



64 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [127a 

Leicester himself was killed ; and Henry, by the assistance of 
his son, was again placed on the throne. 

15. Edward I., surnamed Longshanks from the length of 

his legs, on succeeding to the throne (1272), 
and the caused two hundred and eighty Jews in London to 

jews b e hanged at once on a charge of having cor- 

rupted the coin ; and fifteen thousand were robbed 
of their effects, and banished from the kingdom. He soon 
after undertook to subdue Wales ; and having defeated and 
slain the sovereign, Prince Llewellyn, he annexed the country 
to the crown of England. He created his oldest son Prince 
of Wales, — a title which has ever since been borne by the 
oldest sons of the English monarchs. 

16. The conquest of Wales inflamed the ambition of Edward, 
and inspired him with the design of extending his dominion to 
War with the extremity of the island. On the death of Alex- 
Scotiand. ander III., who left no son, Bruce and Baliol were 
competitors for the throne of Scotland ; and Edward was chosen 
umpire to decide the contest between the two rivals. He 
adjudged the crown to Baliol, who engaged to hold it as a vas- 
sal of the King of England. Baliol, however, soon afterwards 
renounced his allegiance : hence arose a war between England 
and Scotland, which lasted, with little intermission, upwards of 
seventy years, and drenched both kingdoms with blood. Ed- 
ward invaded Scotland with a large army, defeated the Scots 
with great slaughter in the battle of Dunbar, and subdued the 
kingdom ; and Baliol was carried captive to London. 

17. While Edward was prosecuting a war in France, the 
Scots were roused to exertion for the recovery of their inde* 
pendence by their renowned hero, Sir William Wallace ; but, 

after gaining a series of victories, they were at 
Wallace and length defeated by the King of England, with 
Robert immense loss, in the battle of Falkirk. Wallace 

Bruce. 

became a prisoner of Edward, who put him to 
death with barbarous cruelty. The Scots found a second 



I.P7-1 THE PLANTAGENETS. 65 

champion and deliverer in Robert Bruce, grandson of the 
competitor of Baliol, who, having expelled the English from the 
country, was raised to the throne of his ancestors. Edward 
prepared to make a new invasion with an immense army, but 
died after having advanced as far as Carlisle. 

18. Edward, who was one of the greatest of the English 
sovereigns, was eminent as a warrior ; and, on account of his 
wisdom as a legislator, he has been styled the Eng- Edward's 
lish Justinian. But he was in disposition a tyrant, character « 
and, as often as he dared, trampled on the liberties, or invaded 
the property, of his subjects. He was, however, admired by 
his contemporaries ; and his barons respected the arbitrary sway 
of a monarch as violent and haughty as themselves. His reign 
was highly advantageous to the kingdom, particularly for the 
improvements made in the national code and the administra- 
tion of justice. He repeatedly ratified Magna Charta, and an 
important clause was added to secure the people from the 
imposition of any tax without the consent of Parliament. Ever 
since that time there has been a regular succession of English 
parliaments. 

19. Edward II., surnamed of Caernarvon (Kemarvon) 
from the place of his birth, soon after succeeding to the throne 
(1307), in compliance with his father's dying in- Bannock- 
junction, invaded Scotland with an army of one burn - 
hundred thousand men, which was met at Bannockburn by 
thirty thousand Scots under their king, Robert Bruce (1314). 
A great battle ensued, in which the English sustained a more 
disastrous defeat than they had experienced since the battle of 
Hastings. 

20. Edward II., who possessed little of the character of nis 
father, was of a mild disposition, weak, indolent, fond of pleas- 
ure, and governed by unworthy favorites, the most Edwar d u.' S 
famous of whom were Gaveston and the two Spen- character 
cers. His inglorious reign was characterized by an reign ' 
the corruption of- the court, and by contests and- war between 



00 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1327. 

the King and the barons ; and his life was rendered unhappy 
by a series of mortifications and misfortunes. Isabella, his 
infamous queen, fixed her affections, which had long been 
estranged from her husband, upon Mortimer, a powerful young 
baron; and she, together with her paramour, formed a con- 
spiracy against the king, and compelled him to resign the crown 
to his son. Edward was then thrown into a prison, and after- 
wards murdered, by order of Mortimer, in a barbarous manner. 
Before his death, and while he was in prison, Parliament 
declared the throne vacant, thereby establishing its right to 
depose a sovereign. 

21. Edward III. succeeded to the throne (1327) at the 
age of fourteen years. A council of regency, consisting of 
Edward in twelve persons, was appointed during the minority 
and Mor- of the king ; yet Mortimer and Isabella possessed 

' the chief control. A treaty was made with the 

Scots, virtually acknowledging the independence of their king 
and parliament. But Edward, on coming of age, could not 
endure the authority of a man who had caused the murder of 
his father, or of a mother stained with the foulest crimes 
Mortimer was condemned by Parliament, and hanged upon a 
gibbet ; and Isabella was imprisoned for life at Castle Risings, 
and continued for twenty-eight years a miserable monument of 
blasted ambition. 

22. The king, soon after he was established on the throne, 
made war with the Scots, and defeated them with great slaugh- 
Warwith ter m tne battle of Halidon Hill (1333). On the 
the Scots and death of Charles IV., he laid claim, in right of his 
wi ranee, j^^g^ to t j ie cr own of France, which he attempted 
to gain by force of arms, in opposition to Philip of Valois, who 
was acknowledged by the French nation as the rightful heir. 
This claim involved the two countries in a long and sanguinary 
war. After having made his preparations, Edward sailed from 
England with a powerful armament. His fleet, consisting of 
two hundred and fifty sail, encountered that of France, amount- 



1346.] THE PLANTAGENETS. 67 

ing to four hundred ships, off the coast of Flanders, and gained 
one of the greatest naval victories recorded in history. The 
loss of the English is stated at four thousand men and two 
ships, that of the French at thirty thousand men and two 
hundred and thirty ships. 

Edward then invaded France at the head of thirty thousand 
troops, and in the famous battle of Cressy (1346) gained a 
splendid victory over Philip, the French king, who cressy 
had an army of upwards of one hundred thousand the Black 
men, and whose loss exceeded thirty thousand. 
This battle is noted, not only for the greatness of the victory, 
but also for being the first in English history in which cannon 
were made use of, and likewise for being the scene in which 
Edward, the king's eldest son (called the Black Prince from 
the color or covering of his armor) , then only sixteen years of 
age, commenced his brilliant military career. Edward after- 
wards besieged and took Calais, which remained in the posses- 
sion of the English till the time of Queen Mary. 

23. While the English monarch was in France, the Scots, un- 
der their king, David, invaded England, and were de- 

1 1 ™ -t Philippa. 

feated at Neville's Cross, near Durham, by Philippa, 
Edward's heroic queen ; and their king was led prisoner to Lon- 
don. Of the four generals under the queen, three were prelates. 

24. John, who succeeded his father on the throne of France, 
took the field with an army of sixty thousand men against the 
Black Prince, who, with only sixteen thousand 

' J Poitiers. 

troops, gained a signal victory at Poitiers (Pwa- 
tiers), 1356. King John was taken prisoner, and led in triumph 
by the victorious prince to London, where he was kept a fellow- 
captive with David of Scotland. 

25. Edward, in the latter part of his reign, sank into indo- 
lence and indulgence, and experienced a reverse of fortune ; 
and, before his death, all his conquests, with the Possessions 
exception of Calais, were wrested from him. His lost - 

son, the Black Prince, falling into a lingering consumption, was 



68 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. I1377 

obliged to resign the command of the army ; and Charles V, 
of France, an able sovereign, recovered most of the English 
possessions in that country. The death of the Black Prince, 
illustrious for his amiable virtues, as well as for his noble and 
heroic qualities, plunged the nation in grief, and broke the 
spirits of his father, who survived him only about a year, having 
occupied the throne fifty years. 

26. Edward was the • most powerful prince of his time in 
Europe, and in personal accomplishments is said to have been 
Edward's superior to any of his predecessors. His domestic 
character administration was in many respects excellent, and 

reign. advantageous to his subjects. The astonishing vic- 
tories which cast so much military splendor on his reign, and 
which are accounted the most brilliant in English history, appear 
to have dazzled the eyes both of his subjects and foreigners, 
who placed him in the first rank of conquerors. But his wars 
with France and Scotland were unjust in their object; and, 
after having caused great suffering and devastation, he at last 
found that the crowns of those kingdoms were beyond his 
reach. 

In this reign chivalry was at its zenith in England ; and in all 
the virtues which adorned the knightly character, in courtesy, 
munificence, and gallantry, in all the delicate and magnanimous 
feelings, none were more conspicuous than Edward III., and 
his son the Black Prince. Their court was, as it were, the sun 
of that system which embraced the valor and nobility of the 
Christian world. 

27. The title of Duke, now one of the highest orders of 
Order of nobility, was first applied to the Black Prince ; and 
dukes. his father first introduced the order of the Knights 
of the Garter. During this reign the black death, a terrible 

pestilence which came across Europe from the East, 

Pestilence 

prevailed ; and it is said that nearly half the popu- 
lation of London died, and many villages and towns were 
depopulated. 



1 377] THE PLANTA GENETS. 69 

28. The language of the people underwent great changes 
during Edward's reign, and towards its close the English lan- 
guage was used instead of the Norman or French The English 
in the courts and in the schools. Sir John Man- lan e ua g e - 
deville, whose account of his travels in the East is one of the 
oldest books written in English prose, lived during this reign. 

29. Richard II., the unworthy son of Edward the Black 
Prince, succeeded to the throne (1377) at the age of eleven 
years. He was indolent, prodigal, perfidious, and Richard II# 

a slave to pleasure. The administration of the and his re- 
government during the minority of the king was gen s ' 
in his own name, but was conducted by a council chosen by 
the peers ; and this council was greatly influenced, though 
oftentimes secretly, by the king's three uncles, — the Dukes of 
Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, — whose contests embroiled 
ill the public measures. Of these the Duke of Lancaster, John 
Df Gaunt, or Ghent (so named from the place of his birth), 
was the most distinguished, and was possessed of great wealth 
and power : but he became unpopular, particularly with the 
courtiers an^ clergy ; and he was noted for being (for political 
reasons, as is supposed) the protector of Wickliffe the re- 
former, whose preaching for a number of years against the 
corruptions of the Church had made him prominent, and gained 
for him many adherents. 

30. A poll-tax of three groats (about one shilling), imposed 
jy Parliament upon every male and female above the age of 
^fteen years, excited universal discontent among 

1 ' ° Wat Tyler. 

the lower classes, on account of its injustice in re- 
quiring as much of the poor as of the rich. One of the brutal 
tax-gatherers, having demanded payment for a blacksmith's 
daughter whom the father asserted to be below the age speci- 
fied, was proceeding to improper familiarities with her. when 
the enraged father, named Wat Tyler, dashed out the tax- 
gatherer's brains with a hammer. The spectators applauded 
the action. A spirit of sedition spread through the kingdom, 



70 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. * [1388 

and a hundred thousand insurgents, under Tyler, were soon 
assembled upon Blackheath ; but the leader was slain, and his 
followers were finally compelled to submit. This movement 
is known in history as the Peasants' Revolt, or Wat Tyler's 
Rebellion. 

31. While the kingdom was convulsed with domestic contests 5 - 
it was also engaged in hostilities with France and Scotland. At 
War with Otterburn (1388) was fought, between the English 
Scotland and under Percy (surnamed Hotspur on account of his 

fiery temper) and the Scotch under Douglas, a 
battle, in which Percy was taken prisoner, and Douglas was 
slain. On this battle is founded the celebrated ballad of Chevy 
Chace. 

32. Richard unjustly banished his cousin Henry, the eldest 
son and heir of John of Gaunt (Duke of Lancaster), and on 
The king de- the death of the duke he seized upon his estate ; 
posed. "but, the king having afterwards undertaken an ex- 
pedition to Ireland in order to quell an insurrection, Henry, 
the young duke, took advantage of his absence, returned to 
England, landed at Ravenspur, soon found himself at the head 
of a numerous army, and compelled Richard, on his return, to 
resign the crown. The king being very unpopular, the Parlia- 
ment readily confirmed his deposition : he was then imprisoned, 
and, as is generally supposed, afterwards murdered. 

33. During this and the preceding reigns, John Wickliffe, 
the early reformer, lived. He was educated at Oxford, where 
wickliffe he was also master of one or two colleges, and 
and Chaucer, divinity professor. Wickliffe was reputed to be 
highly distinguished for bis theological knowledge and for his 
scholastic ability. He engaged in controversies with the men- 
dicant friars, preached against the corruption and temporalities 
of the Church, and popularized his English translation of the 
Bible. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, was his friend and 
protector. 

Contemporary with him was Geoffrey Chaucer, called the 



1 399] THE PLANTAGENETS. 71 

"father of English poetry." He was educated at Oxford and 
Cambridge, and was a man of rare genius, and very popular at 
the brilliant court of Edward III. His principal work was the 
" Canterbury Tales," in which he represents a party of thirty 
persons, of various occupations in life, journeying from London 
on a pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury, 
and relieving the tiresomeness of the journey by telling stories. 
These stories contain an accurate picture of the manners and 
customs of his time, and his work is still regarded as an English 
classic. Chaucer was one of the first celebrities buried (1400) 
in the Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey. 

34. The Duke of Lancaster was raised to the throne with 
the title of Henry IV. ; though Edmund Mortimer was the true 
heir to the crown, being descended from Lionel, 

the third son of Edward III. ; whereas Henry was enry 
the son of John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III. 
Hence began contests between the houses of York and 
Lancaster. 

35. At the close of this period (1399) nearly three centuries 
and a half had elapsed since the landing of William 

the Conqueror, and during this time great changes anges 
had taken place in the kingdom. 

36. Many of the most objectionable features of the feudal 
system had disappeared. After the Conquest, and especially 
during the reign of Stephen, the number of baronial 

castles erected was very large. These structures, 
generally built upon a hill or rocky eminence, usually consisted 
of a stone tower, or keep, in some cases square, in others round, 
with walls several feet in thickness, and often more than a hun- 
dred feet in height, and with very narrow windows, or loopholes. 
The upper part of this keep was generally the residence of the 
baron, or lord of the castle ; while the underground and the 
lower parts were used as a dungeon and for storerooms. Around 
this, in the larger structures, were one or two walls ; the outer 
one being flanked with towers, enclosing courts within, where 



72 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. '1*399- 

were the residences of the soldiers or knights, and the retainers 
of the baron, and the storehouses of the establishment. Outside 
of the whole was a moat, or deep ditch, filled with water, over 
which was thrown a drawbridge, taken up at night and in times 
of danger. The main entrance was protected by strong iron 
doors, and a portcullis, which consisted of a heavy iron grating, 
or framework of timbers, pointed at the lower end with iron, and 
hung by chains, so as to be let down from the archway above, 
and effectually bar the entrance against intruders and hostile 
invasion. Some of these castles were very large, covering 
several acres of ground ; and they were so substantially built, 
that many of their ruins, after the lapse of seven or eight cen- 
turies, are at this day so strong, and so little affected by time, as 
to excite our admiration and wonder. 

37. Around these gloomy walls were often witnessed some 
of the bloodiest encounters to be found in history. The barons 

and their followers, sallying forth from their strong- 
holds, made war upon each other and upon the 
king, and committed murder and robbery in the most wanton 
and inhuman manner. So great became the danger from this 
source during the reign of Henry II., that that monarch deter- 
mined to exterminate those " robbers' nests," as he was accus- 
tomed to call them ; and he accordingly caused a thousand 
castles to be demolished or dismantled. This gave greater 
security to life and property, and put a check upon the lawless^ 
ness and rapacity of the barons. 

38. The power of the clergy was very great during these 
centuries, and the Church was often the controlling element in 

the government of the kingdom. The Norman 
prelates far excelled the Saxon church officials in 
their ability to manage the affairs of Church and State ; and 
their policy, inaugurated at the Conquest, took strong hold of 
the control of the government. The strife among ecclesiastics 
for places and their emoluments, and for worldly possessions, 
was intense, and not unfrequently led to quarrels and bloody 



I399-] THE PLANTAGENETS. 73 

contentions. They were politicians and warriors, as well as 
church officials, and were active participants in all matters of 
public interests, and sometimes among the foremost in meas- 
ures and acts of oppression. At the close of the fourteenth 
century, the power of the clergy had been greatly curtailed as 
compared with its exercise a century or two earlier. 

39. This was pre-eminently the age of cathedral and church 
building. During the reigns of Henry III. and Edward I., 
Westminster Abbey was rebuilt in nearly its present 

,.. . . ....... ,. Cathedrals. 

condition, some alterations and additions having 
since been made ; and York and Canterbury Cathedrals, and 
many others, were either rebuilt or begun during the twelfth, 
thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. Great improvements were 
made in the architecture of these edifices ; and elegant stained- 
glass windows became quite common, many of which are at 
present in a good state of preservation. Church clocks began 
to be introduced at the close of the thirteenth century, one 
being placed upon the Canterbury Cathedral in 1292. 

40. It is said, that, in the thirteenth century, nearly one-half 
of the landed estates belonged to the Church, and that the 
revenue received by the pope from England was church reve- 
greater than that paid to the crown. Several new nue « 
religious orders were introduced, including the Dominican and 
the Franciscan friars, often called, from the color of 

their dress, Black Friars and Gray Friars. 

41. There were often exhibited, for the entertainment and 
religious instruction of the lower classes of people, rude theat- 
rical plays, oi which the subjects were scenes from Miracle 
the Old and New Testaments ; such as the Creation, plays. 

the Fall of Man, Cain and Abel, the Deluge, the Crucifixion, 
and also the lives and miracles of the saints. The exhibitions 
were given in the churches and monasteries, and the priests and 
monks were among the principal actors. The incidents of the 
plays were all literally given, with representations of the persons 
of the Trinity, angels, devils, saints, and martyrs. In this the 



74 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. j>39* 

simple faith of the common people saw no impropriety, and 
their religious sense was probably edified rather than shocked. 
The representations were very lengthy, the one on the Creation 
and Fall of Man occupying six days. To prevent these plays 
from becoming tedious to their rude audiences, comical scenes 
and jesting were introduced; but this finally degenerated in 
revelry, and the ecclesiastics were prohibited from taking part 
in them. 

42. Judged in the light of modern times, the state of morality 
was then low among all classes ; and the sabbath was so openly 

profaned by secular labor and every species of dis- 
sipation and worldly pleasure, that in 1359 the 
Archbishop of Canterbury issued a proclamation forbidding the 
opening of markets and fairs on Sunday, and commanding " all 
persons to go to the parish churches on that day to ask pardon 
for their offences," instead of devoting it to business or sinful 
amusements. 

43. The principles set forth in Magna Charta were subse- 
quently ratified by several sovereigns, and began to give the 
House of lower classes of people a better chance for justice, 
commons. Yor two centuries after the Conquest, the great 
council of state consisted of the immediate vassals of the king ; 
that is, of the nobility, including bishops, abbots, barons, and 
earls. About the middle of the thirteenth century, during the 
reign of Henry III., knights of the shires and citizens elected 
by the people were admitted, and occupied the lower end of 
the hall in which the council sat. This was the beginning of 
the House of Commons, although it did not meet in a separate 
chamber until the time of Edward III. 

44. The cause of learning received considerable attention 
during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Several colleges 

and schools were established at Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, which now form a part of the universities of 
those well-known seats of learning. To these schools a large 
number of students came, not only from England, Scotland, and 



I399-] THE PLANTA GENETS. 75 

Ireland, but also from the Continent. Law schools, called " Inns 
of Court," were established in that part of London known as 
Westminster, in the fourteenth century. Schools were likewise 
founded in London, St. Albans, and other large towns. But 
these institutions received their patronage very largely from the 
higher classes of people. In the science of astronomy consid- 
erable advancement was made ; and metaphysics, mathematics, 
and alchemy were leading subjects of study. 

Roger Bacon, a Franciscan monk and teacher at Oxford, who 
died about 1292, was a distinguished scholar, learned in the 
ancient languages and in almost all departments of Roger 
knowledge. He prepared several text-books and Bacon, 
treatises, and, with apparatus of his own construction, made 
extensive investigations in the natural sciences as they were then 
known. It is generally believed that he was familiar with the 
composition of gunpowder. 

Some of Bacon's experiments were so wonderful and so little 
understood, that the ignorant and superstitious accused him of 
sorcery, and he was imprisoned for many years. 

45. Much time and investigation were wasted in the study of 
alchemy, by which it was supposed that a universal solvent 
could be discovered that would dissolve all other Alchemy, 
substances. The philosopher's stone was also sought Astrology, 
for, that would change the baser metals into gold. Attention 
ivas likewise given to astrology, which was the pretended art of 
foretelling future events by studying the heavenly bodies ; and 
it was intimately connected with fortune-telling and kindred 
practices. 

Magic -Ian teriis were invented in the reign of Henry III. 
(1260), and spectacles probably soon after, in the time of 
Edward I. Gunpowder and cannon were first used by the 
English in the fourteenth century. 

46. From the Conquest to the death of Chaucer, changes in 
the language had been slowly though constantly taking place. 
With William came the Norman tongue, which was the language 



76 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [i399- 

of the court and polite society. The Saxons spoke their own 
tongue ; while Latin was the language of the church, of the 
The lan- higher institutions of learning, of the laws, and of 

guage. books. For a long time the Saxon refused to learn 

the language of his oppressor ; while the proud Norman looked 
with equal disdain upon the speech of the Saxon, whom he 
regarded as belonging to an inferior class. Some peculiarities 
of the English language grew out of the relation which the 
different classes held to each other at that time. Menial labor 
was performed by the Saxon, such as the tending of the flocks 
and herds of domestic animals ; and by him those animals were 
called by such Saxon names as ox, cow, calf, sheep, and fowl. 
But, when those animals were killed, their meat was not for the 
poorest class, but was served upon the table of the nobles, where, 
in Norman-French, it became beef, veal, mutton, and poultry. 
But in course of time the better class of Saxons rose above 
their inferior condition, and occupied a more friendly and inti- 
mate relation to the Norman, which eventually resulted in an 
assimilation of the languages, as well as of the races. 

The language at the close of the fourteenth century had 
assumed that form called Middle English, having grown up from 
the languages of the Saxons and the Normans, with a slight 
intermixture of words from the Celtic, the Latin, and the Greek. 
It was now spoken at court, and was the language in which 
books began to be written. 

47. In addition to the amusements and recreations to which 
the Saxons had been accustomed, the feudal system introduced 
Touma ^ e tournament, a kind of military sport or exercise, 

ments. Chiv- in which mailed knights sought to exhibit their 
alry ' courage, address, and skill in arms. The knights, 

imbued with the spirit of chivalry, professed to be actuated by 
a high sense of honor, and to be the defenders of the Church 
and its clergy, and of noble and defenceless women, as well as 
to present in their own persons the embodiment of loyalty, 
truth, and all the nobler virtues. Some of their defensive armor. 



1399-] THE PLANTAGENETS. 77 

was made of small steel plates, overlapping each other like the 
scales of a fish ; or of small rings, interlinked, or sewed on 
leather ; and sometimes of large heavy plates, bent to fit differ- 
ent parts of the body, and jointed to make it pliable. 

The usual armor of a knight on the occasion of a tournament 
consisted of a helmet and visor, breastplate, or coat-of-mail, 
gauntlets, greaves, a shield, and a spear or lance, with its point 
blunted, or protected with a block of wood. Mounted upon 
spirited horses, and with their lances extending far before them, 
these knights rushed upon each other with such terrific force 
as not unfrequently to unhorse the riders, and even to maim 
and kill them. He was adjudged the bravest knight who kept 
his seat the longest, or broke the greatest number of lances. 
The prize, awarded by judges, was usually a ribbon, a scarf, or 
a banner, and was received by the victor at the hands of some 
fair lady. 

These tournaments were given on great occasions, such as 
the coronation of a king, a distinguished victory, or a birth or 
marriage in royal and noble families ; and they were accom- 
panied by much ceremony and display, and witnessed by vast 
crowds of the nobility, among whom ladies were always promi- 
nent. But they were demoralizing in their influence, and were 
at times interdicted by church and civil authorities. 

Chivalry was a strange mixture of religious enthusiasm, mili- 
tary ardor, and gallantry. It had a few redeeming features : it 
softened the manners of the people in a barbarous age, and 
infused humanity into war when war was almost the business of 
life. It introduced courtesy of manners when the people were 
rude, required a scrupulous adherence to truth when falsehood 
was notoriously common, and exacted a respectful and delicate 
attention to the female sex in an age when such attention was 
needed. But it was also a school of vice, and a vaunting and 
hollow-hearted institution, originated and conducted for the 
benefit of the nobility. It never had for its object the relief 
and the improvement of the lowly and the poor, however worthy 
they might be. Tournaments ceased when the feudal system 
began to decay. 



78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [139* 

Horse-racing and hunting were common sports of the Eng- 
lish, as, indeed, they have continued to be until the present 
time- 

48. The large number of vessels brought to England by the 
Normans gave quite an impetus to trade and commerce. In 
Trade and the reign of Henry II. trade was very flourishing ; 
commerce. b u t a t other periods it was greatly hindered by petty 
legislation and by jealousy of foreigners. Wool was a large 
article of export ; but Edward III. introduced Flemish weavers, 
and the manufacture of cloth at borne became an important 
industry. 

Dublin became the seat of an extensive commerce, and was 
a rival, in this respect, of London, which was considered the 
principal mart of the kingdom. London became the capital in 
the twelfth century, and is supposed to have had a population 
of about fifty thousand during the reign of John. 

Domestic trade was commonly carried on at fairs, or in small 
stalls or sheds ; and persons who dealt in silks, ribbons, and 
other goods imported from Milan, received the name of " mil- 
liners.' 

Coal is said to have been discovered at New Castle upon 

Tyne, about 1234, during the reign of Henry III. Its use was 

at one time prohibited in London, as its smoke was 

supposed to be injurious to health; but in 1381 the 

trade in coals from New Castle to London had become quite 

extensive. 

49. It is not thought that agriculture made very much prog- 
ress during the three centuries and a half following the Conquest. 

The prevalence of war is unfavorable to agricultural 

Agriculture. ,_. . ... 

pursuits. 1 here was some improvement in farming 
utensils ; hand-mills for grinding grain continued in use among 
the lower classes, while water-mills were numerous upon the great 
manors. Flowers were generally cultivated by all classes ; and 
vegetable-gardens, fruit-orchards, and vineyards were common. 

50. In the reign of John, the poorer classes were still living 



1399- J THE PLANTAGENETS 79 

in rude, thatched huts ; but the dwellings of those in better 
circumstances gave evidence of more comfort and 
convenience. They are described as generally 
oblong in shape, two stories high, and with a gable at each end. 
Movable stairs on the outside were used in reaching the cham- 
bers ; and a ladder led to a common room under the roof. 

But at the close of the fourteenth century, great advance ha& 
been made in domestic architecture, and the houses of al] 
classes were improved in comfort and style. The furniture of 
the rich was elaborately carved, and the upholstering was of silk 
and other costly materials. The will of an earl, made in the 
reign of Richard II., mentions beds of black satin, of white, 
red, and blue silk, and of black velvet, embroidered with gold, 
silver, and colors. 

51. When the Normans came to England, they were more 
abstemious than the Saxons. They were fond of meat ; and 
their bread was made of rye, oats, or barley. But on special 
occasions their feasts were costly, and served with much cere- 
mony and displa . An old proverb implies that they had but 
two meals a day : — 

" To rise at five, to dine at nine, 
To sup at five, to bed at nine, 
Makes a man live to ninety-nine." 

In the thirteenth century, the daily allowance of a farm-laborer 
consisted of a loaf of bread, two herrings, and milk from the 
dairy, or beer. 

But in course of time luxurious living increased. The boar's 
head was the favorite royal dish, and was ushered into the 
dining-hall with the sound of trumpets. Rich food, spiced 
wines, and fermented liquors were used ; and finally gluttony 
and excessive drinking became so common, that a law was 
enacted limiting the number of courses at meals. 

52. Fashions in dress were sometimes most absurd. In the 
twelfth century, fops wore long-pointed shoes twisted in the shape 
Qf rams' horns. Two centuries later these projecting points 



80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [i399- 

turned up in front, and were fastened to the knees by chains of 
gold or silver ; while the head was covered with a richly em- 
broidered hood. His hose were not both of the 
same color, and his jacket was party-colored, and 
fantastically trimmed. The style of ladies' dress was equally 
odd and extravagant. Head-dresses sometimes towered three 
feet above the head, and were decked with silken streamers 
several feet in length. 

Much elegant embroidering was done, for dress and for house 
decoration, by the ladies of good families ; and some of the 
vestments of the clergy wrought by them are spoken of as 
wonderful specimens of needlework and ornamentation. 

Side-saddles, for ladies' use, were introduced in the reign of 
Richard II. 

53. The system of villenage, which had so long kept the 
peasant-class in a kind of slavery, was much mitigated, though 
not entirely abolished. The peasants were now 
tenants rather than serfs, and the condition of the 
common people was much improved. They enjoyed more of 
the comforts of life ; and their rights, their property, and then 
lives were better protected by law. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE BRANCH OF LANCASTER. 

1399-1461, — 62 years 

Henry IV. Henry V. Henry VI. 

HENRY IV., surnamed Bolingbroke from the place ^f 
his birth, who succeeded to the throne by the deposition 
and murder of the lawful king (1399) and the ex- a usurper 
elusion of the rightful heir, soon found that the and persecu- 
throne of a usurper is but a bed of thorns. A 
combination was immediately formed against him. The Scots 
under Douglas, and the Welsh under Owen Glendower, took 
part with the rebels ; but their united forces were defeated in a 
most desperate and bloody battle at Shrewsbury, and their 
leader, Percy (Hotspur), was killed (1403). 

While a subject, Henry was supposed to have imbibed the 
religious principles of his father, John of Gaunt, the patron of 
Wickliffe and his followers ; but, after he was raised to the 
throne, he changed his faith, endeavored to suppress the 
opinions which his father had supported, and was the first Eng- 
lish monarch who caused a subject (William Sawtree) to be 
put to death on account of his religious opinions. 

2. Henry was distinguished for his military talents and for 
his political sagacity ; and, had he succeeded to the throne by 
a just' title, he might have been ranked as one of character 
the greatest of English monarchs. He had been and rei & n - 
one of the most popular noblemen in the kingdom. Yet, al- 
though his reign was in many respects beneficial to the nation. 

Si 



82 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [141 3, 

he became a most unpopular sovereign. His peace of mind 
was destroyed by jealousy and by remorse ; he was an object 
of pity even when seated on the throne ; and he felt the truth 
of the language which Shakspeare puts into his mouth, — " Un- 
easy lies the head that wears a crown." 

3. The latter part of his life was imbittered by the extreme 
profligacy of his son Henry, Prince of Wales. One of the 
Prince prince's dissolute companions having been indicted 
Henry. before the chief justice, Sir William Gascoigne, for 
some misdemeanor, he was so exasperated at the issue of the 
trial, that he struck the judge in open court. The venerable 
magistrate, mindful of the dignity of his office, ordered the 
prince to be committed to prison. Henry quietly submitted, 
and acknowledged his error. When the circumstance was re- 
lated to the king, he is said to have exclaimed, in a transport of 
joy, " Happy is the king who has a magistrate endowed with 
courage to execute the laws upon such an offender ; still more 
happy in having a son willing to submit to such chastisement 1 " 

4. Henry V., on succeeding to the throne (14 13), imme- 
diately assembled his former riotous companions, acquainted 
a reformed them with his intended reformation, forbade their 
kin s- appearance in his presence till they should imitate 
his example, and dismissed them with liberal presents. He 
commended the chief justice for his impartial conduct, and 
encouraged him to persevere in a strict execution of the laws. 
This victory which he gained over himself is incomparably 
more honorable to him than the martial exploits which have 
immortalized his name. 

5. The Wicklifhtes, or Lollards, were now numerous in Eng- 
land, and had for their leader the f amous Sir John Oldcastle 

(Lord Cobham), a nobleman of distinguished tal- 

Oldcastle. 

ents, and high in favor with the king. But Old- 
castle, by his heresy, incurred the displeasure of Henry, and 
was committed to the Tower, whence he escaped into Wales, 
and, as was reported, attempted to incite an insurrection. He 
was afterward captured, condemned, and put to death. 



iV 5-7 THE BRANCH OF LANCASTER. 83 

6. Before Henry came to the throne, his father (Henry IV.) 
had advised him to keep his subjects occupied with foreign 
wars, as that would prevent them from inquiring into Affairs in 
his title to the throne. France at this time was France, 
much distracted by two rival factions, — the houses of Orleans 
and Burgundy, — each striving to exercise control in the king- 
dom during the insanity of the king, Charles VI., and the 
minority of his son the Dauphin, afterwards Charles VII. 

7. Taking advantage of these disorders in France, Henry 
decided to revive his claim to the throne of that kingdom. 
Having hired, from Holland and other countries, a 

fleet of more than twelve hundred vessels, he set 
sail with an army of thirty thousand men, and landed at Har- 
fleur, at the mouth of the Seine, which, after an obstinate resist- 
ance of a month, was compelled to surrender. Henry used in 
this attack some large cannon, called "bombards," which he 
obtained from Germany, with officers to work them, and which 
did effectual service. An old writer says they " vomited from 
their fiery mouths vast quantities of stones with a vehement 
explosion and a terrific and intolerable noise." Sickness soon 
after prevailed to such an extent in Henry's army, that it was 
reduced to about ten thousand, or one-third of the number 
with which he left England. 

8. Leaving Harfleur, Henry marched towards Calais, his army 
being terribly harassed and annoyed by the French 

for nearly a fortnight, until an engagement took 
place at Agincourt {Azhankoor) in October, 141 5. The French 
army numbered sixty thousand ; but, notwithstanding their great 
superiority in numbers, they were terribly defeated, leaving dead 
upon the field seven princes of royal blood, a hundred nobles, 
eight thousand knights, and many common soldiers ; making 
their loss eleven thousand killed, besides fourteen thousand 
prisoners taken by the English. Henry's loss was small. This 
was a memorable battle, and was fought not far from the famous 
battlefield of Cressy. The first musical composition in English 



84 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1422. 

was made in commemoration of this battle. It was written 
upon vellum, and is still preserved in Cambridge University. 
The English king immediately returned to London, where he 
was received with great display, and demonstrations of joy. 

9. Henry made other expeditions ' to France, during which 
he overran Normandy, and occupied Caen and Rouen, and also 
Henry, heir hdcl his court at Paris. There he married Cathe- 
of France. r i ne) the Princess of France, and daughter of King 
Charles VI. By a treaty with the queen, the king being insane, 
Henry was made Regent of France, and declared heir to the 
crown. Two years afterward (1422) he died of a mysterious 
disease, at Vincennes ; and his funeral and burial, in Westminster 
Abbey, are spoken of as one of the most magnificent occasions 
of the kind recorded in history. Tapers were kept constantly 
burning upon his tomb for more than a century. 

10. Henry V. was one of the most heroic of the English 
sovereigns, eminent as a warrioi beloved and adored by mili- 
Henry's tarv men > an( ^ hi s short reign is one of the most 
character. brilliant in English history for military achievement. 
But his conquests were of little benefit to his people. Henry's 
widow married Owen Tudor, a Welsh chieftain, from whom were 
descended the line of English sovereigns called the Tudor family. 

11. Henry VI. succeeded to the throne (1422) when an 
infant only nine months old, and was proclaimed king both of 
Henry's England and France. His education was intrusted 
guardians. to Cardinal Beaufort, brother of his grandfather, 
Henry IV. ; and his uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Glouces- 
ter, were appointed protectors or guardians of his dominions, 
— the former for France, and the latter for England. Charles 
VII., the Dauphin of France, being supported by the French 
people, recovered the kingdom by degrees ; and the English, 

being compelled by that extraordinary heroine, 

Joan of Arc. x r . . . . r ~ 1 / 

Joan of Arc, to raise the siege of Orleans, were 
afterwards stripped of all their conquests in that country, except 
Calais and Guienne {Gheen). 



I43I-] THE BRANCH OF LANCASTER. 85 

12. During these successes of the French, Orleans had been 
besieged by the English several months, and was upon the point 
of surrendering for the want of food, when the city 

was saved by a young peasant-girl from Lorraine, 
called Joan of Arc, but whose real name was Jeanne Dare 
(Zhaun Dark) . She had never attended school, but had spent 
her time in tending her father's flocks, and in solitary musings 
upon the stories and lives of the saints and martyrs. She was 
of a deeply religious nature, and declared that she had seen 
visions, and heard voices, urging her to undertake the deliverance 
of France. Her first offer of her services was rejected, and 
she was thought to be insane or a sorceress ; but, having gained 
an audience with the young king, she succeeded in being ap- 
pointed to a command. Mounted upon a snow-white charger, 
she rode forth at the head of ten thousand troops, whom she 
inspired with such enthusiasm and courage, that they routed the 
English, who fled, saying it was useless to contend with a witch. 
She gained some other victories, and accompanied the king to 
Rheims, and assisted in his coronation there. In a battle at 
Compiegne (Kom-pe-ain) she was taken prisoner by the Duke 
of Burgundy, and sold to the English, who, in revenge for their 
loss of Orleans, gave her up to a court of French ecclesiastics, 
to be tried for sorcery and magic. After a trial of several 
months, she was convicted, and burned at the stake, in the 
market-place at Rouen, in May, 143 1. This act reflects lasting 
disgrace upon the French and the English, and also upon the 
king for not saving her. She was neither bloodthirsty nor cruel, 
and had done no wrong, but had achieved success by her en- 
thusiasm and signal courage. She is often called the Maid of 
Orleans. 

13. Henry, on coming of age, proved himself to be mild and 
inoffensive, but totally incapable of managing the Margaret of 
reins of government. He married Margaret of An J° u - 
Anjou (Anzhoo), — a woman whose distinguished talents, 
ambition, and heroism well fitted her to supply the defects of 



86 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1455. 

her husband in the wars which distracted his reign; but her 
intriguing disposition and cruelty multiplied the number of her 
enemies. Discontents prevailing among the people, an insur- 
rection broke out, headed by Jack Cade, who assumed the 
name of John Mortimer, and collected an army of twenty 
thousand rebels; but he was defeated and slain. The Duke 
of Gloucester, a favorite of the nation, the chief pillar of the 
house of Lancaster, and presumptive heir to the crown (that 
is, heir in case the king should die without issue), had opposed 
the marriage of Henry with Margaret. From this circumstance 
he became odious to the queen, and his death soon after took 
place in a suspicious manner. This event, added to the imbe^ 
cility of the king, encouraged the Duke of York to assert his 
claim to the crown. 

14. The houses of York and Lancaster were both descended 
from Edward III., — that of York from his third son, and that 
Wars of of Lancaster from his fourth. The rightful title was, 

the Roses. f CO urse, on the side of the former. Each party 
was distinguished by a particular badge, or symbol : that of the 
house of York was a white rose, and that of Lancaster a red one : 
hence the civil contests were styled the wars of the Roses. 

This fatal quarrel, which now (1455) broke out into open 
hostilities, lasted thirty years, was signalized by twelve sangui- 
nary pitched battles, and marked by the most unrelenting bar- 
barity. During the contest more than one hundred thousand 
of the bravest men of the nation, including eighty princes of 
the blood, fell on the field, or were executed on the scaffold. 
In the battles of St. Alban's and Northampton the Lancastrians 
were defeated, and the king was taken prisoner; but Queen 
Margaret, having collected a large army, gained the battle of 
Wakefield (1460), in which the Duke of York was defeated 
and slain. But his son and successor, at the head of a numer- 
ous army, entered London amidst 'the shouts of the citizens, 
and was proclaimed king (1461) by the title of Edward IV. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Edward IV. 



THE BRANCH OF YORK. 
1461 to 1485, — 24 years. 
Edward V. 



Richard III. 



THE new king, Edward IV. (1461), was not permitted 
to. enjoy the crown in peace. The heroic Margaret again 
collected an army of sixty thousand men, which Edward iv. 
was met by the Yorkists to the number of upwards and Towton - 
of forty thousand, under the command of Edward and the Earl 
of Warwick. A tre- 
mendous battle was 
fought (1461) at Tow- 
ton, in which Edward 
obtained a decisive 
victory ; and upwards 
of thirty- six thousand 
Englishmen, slain by 
one another's hands, 
were left dead on the 
field. Henry, having 
been taken prisoner, 
was confined in the 
Tower, and there (after 
being liberated, and a 
second time impris- 
oned) was finally mur- 
dered (1471), as was supposed, by the Duke of Gloucester, 
afterwards Richard III. 

87 




THE TOWER OF LONDON. 



88 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1464 

2. The unfortunate queen, accompanied by her son, a boV 
eight years old, while flying from her enemies, was benighted ifl 
The queen Hexam Forest, and fell into the hands of ruffians 
a fugitive. w h stripped her of her jewels, and treated het 
with great indignity. After she was liberated from them, being 
overcome with fatigue and terror, she sank in despair, but was 
suddenly roused by the approach of a robber with a drawn 
sword. Seeing no way to escape, she rose, and presented to 
him her child : " My friend," said she, " here is your king's son, 
whom I commit to your protection." The man, pleased with 
this unexpected confidence reposed in him, afforded every 
assistance in his power, and conducted the mother and son 
through numerous perils to a small seaport, whence they sailed 
to Flanders. 

3. The house of York had been hitherto supported by the 
important assistance of Nevil, Earl of Warwick, the most power- 
Eari of ful baron in England, and the greatest general of 
Warwick. hj s trme . b^ Edward having given offence to his 
benefactor, Warwick was induced to abandon him, and to sup- 
port the Lancastrians. By his exertions Edward was deposed ; 
and Henry, after having been a prisoner six years in the Tower, 
was released, and again proclaimed king. Thus Warwick, hav- 
ing restored Henry (whom he had deposed) and pulled down 
Edward (whom he had placed on the throne) , obtained the title 
of " King-Maker." But, in the bloody battle of Barnet, Edward 
prevailed, and the brave Warwick was slain. The intrepid 
Margaret Margaret, having returned to England, made a last 
defeated. effort for the crown in the desperate battle of 
Tewksbury (1471), which proved fatal to her hopes. Her son 
was slain, and she herself was taken prisoner, but was after- 
wards ransomed by the King of France ; and in that country she 
passed the remainder of her life in obscurity and neglect. 

4. Edward, being now secured on the throne, gave himself 
up to unrestrained indulgence in acts of tyranny, cruelty, and 
debauchery. His brother, the Duke of Clarence, who had 



1483.] THE BRANCH OF YORK. 69 

assisted him in gaining the crown, he caused, wnh the con- 
currence of his other brother, the Duke of Gloucester, to be 
impeached and condemned ; and he is said to have 
been drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine. Edward iv.'s char- 
was possessed of talents, and was reputed the hand- acter and 

conduct. 

somest and most accomplished man of his time in 
England. The love of pleasure was his ruling passion. " His 
character," says an elegant writer, " is easily summed up : his 
good qualities were courage and beauty ; his bad qualities, every 
vice." 

5. It was in this reign that the art of printing was introduced 
into England by William Caxton, a London merchant and a fine 
scholar. He had spent several years abroad, in the 

service of the government, and returned from Flan- 
ders about 1474, bringing with him a knowledge of the new art, 
which had been discovered in Germany more than thirty years 
before. He set up a printing-office near Westminster Abbey 
(1477) ; and one of the first books printed was a translation 
from the French called the " Game and Playe of the Chesse." 

6. Edward IV. left two* sons, the eldest of whom, being only 
thirteen years of age, was proclaimed king (1483) by the title 
of Edward V. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Richard in., 
brother to Edward IV., being appointed protector, tbe usurper, 
caused Lord Hastings and other distinguished persons to be 
executed without trial, seized the crown on the pretence that 
his nephew (Edward V.) and his brother (the Duke of York) 
were illegitimate, and procured himself to be proclaimed king 
(1483) by the title of Richard III. After two months the 
young princes disappeared, and are said to have been smoth- 
ered in the Tower by order of Richard. 

• 7. In seeking the throne, Richard III. had unscrupulously 
trampled upon the rights of the people, and had probably shed 
the blood of some of his nearest relations. But his Battle of 
wicked career found an avenger in the Earl of Bosworth. 
Richmond, the only surviving heir of the house of Lanca^ec 



po HISTORY OF ENGLAND. \}\H 

The armies of the two rivals met at Bosworth in Leicestershire, 
in the central part of England (1485), where a desperate battle 
was fought, which, by reason of Lord Stanley's going over to 
Richmond, proved fatal to Richard, who was defeated and 
slain ; and his rival was crowned on the field by the title of 
Henry VII. 

8. Richard, who was a man of talents and courage, could 
conceal the most bloody projects under the mask of affection 

and friendship ; and his insatiable ambition led him 

Richard . ... 

in. 's char- to perpetrate the most atrocious crimes. He was 
acter and somewhat deformed in person, but could be affable 
in manners when it suited his purpose. His sole 
ambition was to be king of England ; and to the accomplish- 
ment of that end he sacrificed principle and friends, or whatever 
stood in his way. But some of his acts were beneficial. He 
rewarded those friends who were faithful to him, and restored 
to their owners many confiscated estates. Trade and commerce 
were encouraged by him, and he established a kind of post 
system by regular couriers for the transmission of information. 

9. The battle of Bosworth terminated the long and bloody 
conflicts between the two houses of York and Lancaster, which 
T a . had reduced the kingdom to a state of almost 

Influence of ° 

the wars of savage barbarity ; Jaws, arts, and commerce being 
the Roses. entirely neglected for the practice of arms. During 
these wars constitutional liberty received a severe check, and 
the whole course of civilization was turned backward. But out 
of much evil some good was derived. The power of the 
ancient nobility was gone forever ; for, during the long and 
bloody wars, the greater part of the nobles perished, and feu- 
dalism almost disappeared. 

10. But the wars of the Roses were not fought in the interests 
of the people : they were the melancholy result of most bitter 
The wars and an d malignant feuds among rival families of the 
the people. nobility. And as these wars were carried on prin- 
cipally by and for the nobility, so their immediate effects fell at 



1485.] THE BRANCH OF YORK. 9 1 

first more directly upon that class than upon the common people 
at large and the industrial classes. But the long continuance 
of the wars, and the almost exclusive devotion to arms by those 
who ought to have been leaders in good government and in 
business, finally involved the whole nation in consequences most 
disastrous to the welfare of the people and to the progress of 
freedom. 

11. It is difficult to find in the annals of the past a sadder 
and more disgusting chapter of history than that which details 
the wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, character of 
The conduct of these wars was everywhere savage the wars, 
and brutal, and was destitute of that spirit of chivalry which 
had before been characteristic of the English people. The most 
wanton exhibitions of revenge were common on all sides, and 
often resulted in the execution of personal enemies in the most 
inhuman and disgraceful manner. Patriotism did not actuate 
either party, nor characterize their conduct in the wars. Selfish- 
ness and revenge seemed to be the leading motives ; and the 
most unblushing treason went unrebuked, and was often at a 
premium. The nobler traits of human character seemed to be 
extinguished or repressed, and the baser passions reigned tri- 
umphant. But for all this suffering and shame, the nation has 
nought to show that redounds to its credit. 

12. The serfs and the lower orders of the people served in 
the wars of the Roses ; and they could never after- The serfs> 
wards be reduced to their former state of servitude, &c - 

but enjoyed greater privileges, living in better houses, and having 
more of the comforts of life. 

13. Several new institutions of learning were founded during 
these reigns, — King's and Queen's Colleges in Cambridge 
(1441-48), and Magdalen College (1457) at Ox- Newco u 
ford, three of the finest specimens of Gothic archi- le e es - 
tecture in existence. Eton College, near Windsor, a preparatory 
school for the sons of the nobility, was founded in 1440 ; and 
the Bodleian Library at Oxford was erected in 1445-80. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



A. — Topics for Outside Reading. 

1. Results of the Norman Conquest : effects on commerce, 

language, government, civilization in England. 

Freeman, " Short History," Ch. XIV. For " Doomsday 
Book," see Colby, No. 15. 

2. Archbishop Anselm. 

Gardiner, I., 117-8, 125-6. Creighton, " Stories," XII. 
On the death of William II, see Coman and Bates, 45. 

3. Henry I.'s charter of liberties. 

Kendall, No. 17. Colby, No. 19. Make a list of Hen- 
ry's promises. 

For the " White Ship," see Coman and Bates, 48. 
Colby, No. 20. 

4. The anarchy of Stephen's reign. 

Gardiner, I., 134-5. Guest, 160. Colby, No. 21. Ken- 
dall, No. 18. 

5. Henry II. 

Character and personal appearance ; Green, 104-5. 
Gardiner, I., 138. Kendall, No. 19. Stubbs, "Early 
Plantagenets," 34. 

Legal reforms ; Montague, " Elements of English Con- 
stitutional History," 47-50. Gardiner, I., 146-8. 

Military reforms; Montague, 41, 50. Gardiner, I, 141, 

154. 

Thomas Becket ; Gardiner, I., 140, 142-6, 149-51. 
Green, 106-9. Stubbs, Ch. IV. Montague, 42-5. 
Creighton, "Stories," XIV. Kendall, Nos. 20, 21. 
Colby, No. 23. Coman and Bates, 63. 

6. Richard I. 

Crusade; Creighton, " Stories," XV.-XVII. Coman 
and Bates, 67. Colby, No. 27. 

Growth of English towns; Montague, 35. Colby, No. 
28. Gardiner, I., 168-70. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 93 

7. John. 

Loss of Normandy; Gardiner, I., 173-6. Green, 115. 
Stubbs, "Early Plantagenets," 129-37. 

Quarrel with the Church ; Gardiner, I., 176-80. Stubbs, 
137-43. Green, 122-6. Colby, No. 29. 

Magna Charta; " Old South Leaflet," No. 5. Colby, No. 
30. Kendall, No. 24. Gardiner, I., 181-4. Montague, 
53-7- 

8. The beginnings of Parliament. 

Gardiner, I., 193-203, 218. Montague, 69, 73-81. 
Kendall, No. 28, or Colby, No. 34. Stubbs, 172, Ch. IX., 
220-7. Gardiner, " Historical Biographies," Simon de 
Montfort. 

9. The wars with Scotland. 

Gardiner, I., 214-19, 221-27. Stubbs, 229-32, 245-9, 
261. Kendall, No. 29. Colby, No. 35. Guest, Ch. 
XXV., XXVI. Creighton, " Stories," XIX. Coman and 
Bates, 97. 

10. The Hundred Years' War, to 1360. 

Gardiner, I., 232-43, 251-4. Green, 223-31. Creigh- 
ton, " Stories," XXIII., XXIV. Kendall, No. 30. Colby, 
No. 39. 

For the growth of Parliament's power during the period, 
see Montague, 81-5. 

On the Black Prince, see Gardiner, " Historical Biog- 
raphies," 44. 

11. Labor troubles and the peasants' revolt. 

On the Black Death ; Colby, No. 40. Kendall, No. ^3- 
Guest, 269. Green, 247. 

Statute of Laborers ; Gardiner, I., 248-50. Guest, 270-2. 
Green, 248. 

Peasants' revolt ; Gardiner, I., 267-9. Guest, 298-303. 
Green, 250-8. Colby, No. 42. Kendall, No. 34. Creigh- 
ton, " Social England," Ch. IV. Coman and Bates, 127. 

12. John Wyclif and the attacks on the Church. 

Gardiner, I., 257-61, 266. Green, 235-44. Guest, 
292-7. Colby, No. 41. Kendall, No. 35. "Old South 
Leaflet," No. 57. Creighton, "Stories," XXVI. 



94 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

13. The French War renewed — Joan of Arc. 

Gardiner, I., 300-20. Guest, 324-47. Green, 267-70., 
274-81. Colby, No. 45. Coman and Bates, 182. 

14. Wars of the Roses. 

Details in Gardiner, I., Kendall, Nos. 37-43. 

For causes of the new monarchy ; Green, 288-92. Colby, 
No. 48 (Princes in the Tower). Creighton, " Stories," 
XXVIL, XXVIII. Coman and Bates, 217. 



B. — Topics for Special Reports. 

William I. 

1. How William kept the English and Normans under 

control. 

Gardiner, I., 104-6. Montague, 23. 

2. The Bayeux tapestry. 

Pictures in Gardiner, I., 91-8. 

3. Hereward, last of the Saxons. 

4. Did feudalism in England begin in the reign of William I ? 

Montague, 16-21. Am. Hist. Review, Oct., 1901. 

5. The great gemote at Salisbury, 1086. 

Henry II. 
1. Henry's conquest of Ireland. 

John. 

1. What is the difference between an interdict and an excom- 

munication ? 

2. Pope Innocent III. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 95 

3. Study Magna Charta for answers to the following ques- 
tions : 

a. What classes of people are granted rights ? 

b. Make a list of some of John's illegal acts. 

c. What was the composition of the Great Council 
at this time ? 

d. How were the members to be summoned ? 

e. What arrangement was made to secure the king's 
observance of the charter ? 

Henry III. 

1. The coming of the Friars. 

Gardiner, I., 190-2. Guest, 211-13. Green, 148-51, 

Edward I. 

1. The Confirmation of the charters, 1297. 
Montague, 70. Gardiner, I., 220-1- 

Edward II. 

1. The duties of a tenant. 

Kendall, No. 32. 

The Hundred Years' War. 

1. English and French methods of warfare. 

Gardiner, I., 241-2. 

2. What powers did Parliament gain during this period ? 

Montague, 81. 
Why was the time favorable to growth ? 

3. Of what historical value are the Canterbury tales ? Who 

wrote them ? 

4- Travelling in England in the fourteenth century- 
Gardiner, I., 272-5. 



96 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



C. — Map Work. 

1. The extent of Henry II's possessions, and how he ob- 

tained them. 

2. The Holy Land, and places connected with Richard I. 

3. Sketch a map of Scotland, and locate the important 

battles. 

4. France by the peace of Bretigny; locate Calais, Crecy, 

Poitiers, Agincourt, Orleans, Troyes. 

5. Locate Wakefield, Towton, Barnet, Bosworth. What 

immediate result did each have ? 



PART III 

MODERN ENGLAND. 

FROM THE REIGN OF HENRY VII. (1485) TO THE PRESENT 

TIME. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE TUDOR FAMILY. 

1485 to 1O03, — 118 years. 

Henry VII. Henry VIII. Edward VI. Mary. Elizabeth. 

THE hereditary right of Henry VII. (1485) to the 
crown was very defective ; but he strengthened his claim 
by marrying Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV.; Henry vn.'s 
and in this way the two houses of York and Lan- title * 
caster were united. Henry was the son of Margaret (great- 
grand-daughter of John of Gaunt) and of Edmond Tudor. 
The sovereigns of the house of Tudor were arbitrary in their 
principles ai?d character ; but their reign, though disturbed by 
conflicts both domestic and foreign, was, notwithstanding, less 
convulsed by war than that of any other family of English 
kings. 

2. The policy of Henry was pacific, and his reign was com- 
paratively tranquil ; yet it was disturbed by several plots and 
conspiracies, two of which were of a singular char- Two pre- 
acter. One of these was the attempt of Lambert tender s- 
Simnel, the son of a baker, to counterfeit the person of the 

97 



98 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1485. 

Earl of Warwick : the other was a similar attempt of Perkin 
Warbeck to counterfeit the Duke of York, who is said to have 
been smothered in the Tower by the order of Richard III, 
Both of the adventurers aspired to the crown, and met with 
considerable support from the people. Simnel, after being pro- 
claimed King of England and Ireland at Dublin, was taken 
prisoner, and, instead of being executed, was made a scullion 
in the king's kitchen, and afterwards promoted to be falconer. 
Perkin Warbeck, who maintained his cause by force of arms for 
five years, was supported by many of the nobility, and acknowl- 
edged by the kings of France and Scotland ; but, being at last 
taken prisoner, he was executed as a traitor. And, near the 
same time, the real Earl of Warwick (the son of the Duke of 
Clarence, and nephew of Edward IV.), the last male of the 
Plantagenets, who had been imprisoned from his childhood for 
no other crime than his birth, was condemned and executed on 
a charge of treason. 

3. Henry VII. was more deficient in the feelings of the heart 
than in the qualities of the mind, and, though much respected, 
Henry vii.'s was little beloved. He is described as a tall, thin 
character. man, with a very grave countenance, and reserved 
in his manners. He manifested no interest in public amuse- 
ments, but was wholly devoted to business, which he conducted 
with much prudence and sagacity. But he was suspicious in 
his temper, and in government very despotic. The love of 
money was his ruling passion ; and his avaricious disposition 
showed itself in all his acts, public and private. To obtain 
money for his own treasury, he often descended to acts of 
meanness and extortion. Richard Empson and Edmund Dud- 
ley, two lawyers, were his unprincipled agents in this work of 
rapacity and oppression. They looked up old and obsolete 
laws, by which they contrived to impose enormous fines, and to 
decree the forfeiture of much property, and many estates and 
privileges, which could be redeemed only by paying the most 
exorbitant sums of money. By his frugality And arbitrary exac- 



M92.J THE TUDOR FAMILY. 99 

tions Henry accumulated immense wealth, and is said to have 
left at his death, in ready money, the sum of one million eight 
hundred thousand pounds, — an enormous amount of specie 
for that age, equivalent to ten million pounds, or, according to 
some, to sixteen million pounds, at present. 

4. His reign was prosperous at home, and respected abroad ; 
and, though not a popular sovereign, he was, perhaps, next to 
Alfred, the most useful prince that had hitherto sat His reign 
on the throne of England. Many wise and salutary useful, 
laws were enacted during his reign, habits of industry were 
promoted in business and in all the affairs of life, and commerce 
was greatly encouraged. His fondness for money prevented 
him from expending it in unnecessary wars, and hence he taught 
the peaceful arts of civilized life to a warlike and turbulent 
people. The most troublesome class with whom he had to 
contend was the aristocracy who had survived the wars of the 
Roses, and who were fractious and insolent. But he succeeded 
in reducing them to subordination ; and, by permitting the 
nobles to alienate their lands, he weakened their power, raised 
the respectability of the lower orders, and gave a mortal wound 
to the feudal system. He expended fourteen thousand pounds 
in building one ship, named " The Great Harry," which may 
be considered as the beginning of the English navy, inasmuch 
as the government, before this period, had no other mode of 
raising a fleet than by hiring or pressing the vessels of merchants. 

5. It was during the reign of Henry VII. (1492) that America 
was discovered by Columbus, under the patronage of Isabella, 
Queen of Spain. This event gave a great impulse Spirit of ad _ 
to the spirit of maritime adventure throughout venture. 
Western Europe, and eventually contributed much to the im- 
provement of trade and commerce. Under a commission from 
Henry, John Cabot, a Venetian residing at Bristol, with his son 
Sebastian, made a voyage to the New World (1497), and dis- 
covered the coast of North America from Labrador southward. 
The Cabots received no assistance from Henry, except their 



I0O HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1509. 

charter, but promised to give him one-fifth of the profits of the 
adventure. This was the origin of the English claim to a portion 
of the New World. Sebastian Cabot published the first map of 
the world which included both hemispheres. Maps and sea- 
charts now became common in England. Great interest was 
manifested in new discoveries, and the study of geography 
received much attention. 

6. There was also, during this period, a remarkable revival 
of learning, which had been neglected and in low repute during 
Revival of tne wars °f tne Roses. This was brought about 
learning. j n large measure by the introduction of printing. 
Hitherto books had been made only by the slow, laborious, and 
costly process of transcribing by hand. About the year 1400, 
when the pay of a laborer was but a penny or two, a book of 
homilies cost from ten to forty pounds. But the art of printing 
rapidly increased the number of books, and lessened their cost, 
and caused a general dissemination of information. In the 
reign of Richard III. the laws which were ta be obeyed by the 
English people were for the first time enacted in the English 
language, and these laws were also the first laws printed in 
England. 

7. The Star Chamber Court was instituted by Henry VII., 
so called from the gilded stars on the ceiling of the room in 
star Cham- Westminster Palace where it met. It was composed 
ber - of seven members, was entirely under the control 
of the king, and had charge, without jury, of high crimes and 
misdemeanors against the government and the administration 
of justice. In later years it became tyrannical and odious. 

8. Henry's son Arthur married Catherine of Aragon, daugh- 
House of ter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain ; and his 
Stuart. daughter Margaret became the wife of James 
(Stuart) IV. of Scotland, from whom descended the house of 
Stuart. 

9. Henry died of consumption, in 1509, and was buried in 
the Chapel of Henry VII., so called, which he had built as a 



I509-] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 101 

considerable addition to the east end of Westminster Abbey. I* 
is very elaborately finished in the style called Per- Henry's 
pendicular Gothic, and is probably one of the best death, 
specimens of Tudor architecture in existence. 

10. No monarch ever succeeded to the throne of England 
with brighter prospects than Henry VIII. (1509). Uniting 
in his person the claims of the two houses of York p roS pects of 
and Lancaster, his title was undisputed. The treas- Henry vm. 
ury was well stored, the nation at peace, and the state of the 
country prosperous. He was eighteen years of age, and of 
beautiful person and accomplished manners. He possessed 
fine talents and considerable learning, being master of four 
languages, a good student in theology, of a fine musical taste, 
and familiar with the sciences of medicine, engineering, and 
ship-building. In his disposition he was frank and open, and 
was regarded by the people with affection and high expectations. 
But these expectations were wofully disappointed. As the 
character of the king developed itself, he was found to be 
destitute both of wisdom and virtue ; and he proved himself to 
be unprincipled and cruel. Like his father, he was immoder- 
ately fond of getting money ; but, unlike him, he spent it with 
a prodigal hand. In his friendships he was fickle, and in his 
resentments merciless ; and he was capable of sending a min- 
ister or a wife to the scaffold with apparently little feeling of 
compunction. 

11. With the aristocracy his government was but little short 
of despotism ; but, when dealing with the great mass of the 
people, he was sometimes compelled to yield to the popular 
will. In general, however, there was a degrading servility of 
the people and Parliament in tamely submitting to his tyranny, 
or becoming the passive instruments of its exercise. He chose 
for his ministers men of eminent talents, but he made them 
feel the effects of his caprice and cruelty. Archbishop Cranmer 
was the only one of great distinction among them who had the 
good fortune to retain to the last his confidence and regard. 



102 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [15 13. 

12. By his profusion and expensive pleasures he soon ex- 
hausted the treasures which he inherited from his father. 
Foreign Though his military operations were not numerous, 
war. yet in the early part of his reign he made war 
against Louis XII. of France, invaded the country, and at 
Guinegate 'gained the battle of the Spurs, so named from the 
rapid flight of the French. The Scots sympathized with the 
Fiodden French ; and, having invaded England, their army 
Field. W as met by the English, under the Earl of Surrey, 
at Fiodden Field, near the Cheviot Hills. A desperate engage- 
ment ensued (15 13), in which the Scots were utterly defeated ; 
their king, James IV., and more than ten thousand knights, 
being slain. Henry was also, in some degree, involved in the 
wars of the two great rivals of the age, — Charles V. of Ger- 
many, and Francis I. of France. In 1520 Henry visited France 
for a conference with the French king in regard to an alliance 
against Germany. They met near Guines (G/ieen), not far 
from Calais ; and so gorgeous and costly were the preparations 
made by both courts, that the place of meeting was called the 
" Field of the Cloth of Gold." Interviews and entertainments 
were continued more than two weeks ; but Henry was already 
favorably disposed towards the German emperor, and no alli- 
ance was formed. 

13. During this reign, an important change took place in the 
Church in England, in its relations to the central ecclesiastical 
TheRefor- authorities at Rome, and afterwards in its faith 
/nation. an d doctrine. Some years before, a movement was 
started upon the Continent which resulted in dividing the 
Catholic Church into two sections, from one of which sprang, 
at different times, the various organizations embraced under the 
general name of " Protestants." It was at first a religious and 
ecclesiastical movement, in whose discussions were prominent 
such subjects as granting of indulgences, the nature and rule of 
faith, good works, the rights of conscience and private judgment, 
and the Bible as the rule of faith and practice. But afterwards 



1529] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 103 

the movement assumed also a political and social character, and 
engrossed the attention of a large portion of Europe, and mate- 
rially affected the whole framework of society and its institutions. 
This is called in history the great Reformation. The term 
" Protestants " was derived from a protest made by some Ger- 
man princes and deputies against a decree of the Diet of Spires, 
about 1529, to support the Church of Rome. The leader of the 
Reformation in Germany was Martin Luther. 

Before he arrived at the age of thirty, Henry wrote a book, 
in Latin, on the Seven Sacraments, against Luther, which pleased 
the Pope so much, that he conferred on him the title of " De- 
fender of the Faith," — a title which his successors have ever 
since retained. 

14. The most important public character in England at this 
time was Thomas Wolsey {Wool'-ze), a fine scholar, an able 
statesman, and a man of magnificent and courtly cardinal 
bearing. He held successively the offices of bishop, Wolsey. 
archbishop, cardinal, lord-chancellor, and papal legate. His 
style of living was princely in the extreme. He was clad in 
silks and satins of scarlet or crimson, with gloves and hat of the 
same colors, and shoes inlaid with pearls and diamonds. His 
train was composed of eight hundred persons, with a body- 
guard of knights and squires ; while his domestic servants were 
richly clad, his cook wearing silks and satins, and a gold chain 
around his neck. When he appeared in public, he equalled, 
in display and ceremony, royalty itself. Wolsey was the prime 
mover in all the principal events of Henry's reign for more than 
fifteen years, and on one or two occasions was a prominent 
candidate for the papal chair. He built a splendid palace, still 
in existence, at Hampton Court, near London, which he pre- 
sented to his royal master. 

15. But the most memorable transactions of Henry's reign 
were his matrimonial alliances and the consequences Matrimonial 
which flowed from them. His first wife was Cath- troubles, 
erine of Aragon, widow of his elder brother Arthur, daughter 



104 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1534. 

of Ferdinand of Spain, and aunt of Charles V. He had been 
contracted to her at a very early age by the influence of his 
father ; and, after having lived with her about eighteen years, 
he professed to feel conscientious scruples respecting the law- 
fulness of the marriage, on account of her having been the wife 
of his brother ; and, conceiving a passion for the beautiful and 
accomplished Anne Boleyn {An Bui' -en), he applied to the 
Pope for a divorce. Having experienced various delays, and 
imagining that his favorite minister, Cardinal Wolsey, was the 
chief obstacle in the way of effecting his object, the king resolved 
on his ruin, and ordered him to be arrested for high treason. 
But the haughty cardinal soon after fell sick and died, having 
exclaimed, in the pangs of remorse, " Had I but served God 
as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given 
me over in my gray hairs." Wolsey was succeeded 

More. / 

by Sir Thomas More, a distinguished scholar and 
public man, who was the author of a book in Latin called 
" Utopia," in which he describes an imaginary commonwealth 
in an island of that name. 

The opinions of various universities favorable to Henry's 
views having been obtained, and the Pope failing to grant the 
Quarrel with divorce, the king caused a court to be held under 
the Papacy. Cranmer, which pronounced his marriage invalid ; 
and Lady Anne was soon after crowned queen. The papal 
jurisdiction in England was immediately abolished (1534), some 
alterations made in the doctrines and forms of religion, and the 
king was declared the supreme head of the English Church. 
Thomas Cromwell {Krum'-wel), his prime-minister, and after- 
wards the Earl of Essex, was appointed vicar-general oY the 
Church. He was favorable to the reformers, and was instru- 
mental in the suppression of many monasteries and religious 
houses, from whose treasuries and lands large sums of money 
were realized. 

16. This bold measure greatly aided the reformation in reli- 
gion; but such a result was probably no part of the king's 



1 547-] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 105 

intention. Though Henry ceased to acknowledge allegiance 
to the Church of Rome, he was far from being a A perse- 
Protestant. He arrogated infallibility to himself, cutor - 
and caused the law of the Six Articles of religion, termed the 
" Bloody Statute," to be enacted, and condemned to death both 
Catholics and Protestants who ventured to maintain opinions 
in opposition to his own. The venerable Bishop Fisher and 
Sir Thomas More, two conscientious Catholics, were beheaded 
for refusing to acknowledge his supremacy and the validity of 
his marriage with Anne Boleyn. In less than three More matri _ 
years after his new marriage he caused Anne Boleyn moniai 
to be condemned and beheaded, in order to gratify troubles - 
his fondness for Jane Seymour, whom he married the day after 
the execution, and who died soon after giving birth to Prince 
Edward. He next married Anne of Cleves, but soon discarded 
her because he did not find her so handsome as she had been 
represented ; and Cromwell, his prime-minister, having been 
instrumental in bringing about this joyless marriage, lost the 
favor of his sovereign, and suffered death on the scaffold. 
Catherine Howard, whom he next married, was condemned and 
executed for adultery. But Catherine Parr, his sixth wife, had 
the good fortune to survive him. During the latter part of his 
life Henry became quite infirm and gross. He died in 1547, 
aged fifty-six years. 

17. Some recent historians take a view of Henry's life and 
character more favorable than that entertained by the enemies 
of the Tudor family. The moral tone of public Henry in 
opinion in England at that time was low ; yet this history. 
cannot account for very many of the acts for which he is 
most severely judged. 

18. Henry's reign was one of considerable activity, during 
which events took place that were important, and far-reaching 
in their consequences. Trade, commerce, and ship- important 
building were encouraged ; and free labor, instead even**.. 

of that of serfs, gave the lower classes better homes and mckv 



106 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. T T 547 

of the comforts of life. The printing-press gave a quickening 
influence in the diffusion of knowledge ; and an English transla- 
tion of the Bible was used in the churches, and the services 
were, in part at least, conducted in the English language. In 
learning, a revival took place, which found able patrons in Wolsey 
and More ; and Erasmus, a distinguished Dutch scholar, was 
for a few years professor of Greek at Cambridge, and did much 
to promote classical scholarship and learning. William Lilly, 
one of the first scholars of his age, had a private school in 
London about 1509, and is said to have been the first person 
who taught Greek in that city. Soon afterwards he became the 
first master of St. Paul's School, founded about that time in 
London ; and he published a Latin grammar, which was for a 
long time used in all the schools of England, and which, indeed, 
may be called the foundation of all the Latin grammars since 
published. The science of medicine, and its application to the 
saving of human life and the amelioration of suffering, made 
great progress at this time. 

Pins were first introduced from France by Queen Catherine 
Howard, and were an expensive luxury ; and the gold coin 
representing the value of a pound sterling was first called a 
sovereign during this reign. Wales had its first representative 
in Parliament at this time. 

19. Henry VIII. left three children, — Mary, daughter of 
Catherine of Aragon ; Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn ; 
Reign of an d Edward, son of Jane Seymour. The last suc- 
Edwardvi. ceeded him (1547), with the title of Edward 
VI., in his tenth year; Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, 
uncle of the young king, being appointed protector ; and after 
his fall the Duke of Northumberland was raised to the same 
office. Edward's short reign was distracted by contests between 
those to whom the direction of public affairs was intrusted. But 
the Protestant influence prevailed in the government, the cause 
of the Reformation was promoted, and the reformed liturgy and 
Book of Common Prayer was modelled under the direction of 



1553-1 THE TUDOR FAMILY. 107 

Cranmer ; yet a great part of the people were still attached to 
the Catholic faith. 

20. Edward, a prince of great hopes and virtues, died in his 
sixteenth year, deeply lamented. So different was his character 
from that of his father, that he is said never to have His C harac- 
signed an order for an execution against any per- ter « 

son without shedding tears. Just before his death he had been 
prevailed upon, by the interested influence and intrigues of the 
Duke of Northumberland, the protector, to set aside his sisters 
Mary and Elizabeth, and bequeath the crown to Jane Grey, 
great-grand-daughter of Henry VIL, who was married to Lord 
Guilford Dudley, a son of the protector. 

21. Immediately after the death of Edward, Lady Jane Grey, 
who had been appointed successor by the intrigues of her 
friends, was proclaimed queen by her adherents ; Lady jane 
but, after wearing the crown ten days, she resigned Gre y« 

it, and would gladly have returned to private life. Mary was 
soon acknowledged the rightful heir, and succeeded to the 
throne in 1553. The youth and innocence of Lady Jane and 
her husband (neither of them exceeding their seventeenth year) 
pleaded strongly in their favor ; yet they were both seized, and 
cast into the Tower. 

22. In the second year after she succeeded to the throne, 
Mary was married to Philip II. of Spain, — a union unpopular 
with her subjects, and productive of little happiness Her mar. 

to herself Upon the announcement of this pro- "ad- 
jected marriage several rebellions took place, and in one of 
these some of the friends of Lady Jane Grey took part. This 
sealed the fate of the unfortunate lady, and she and her husband 
were soon after put to death. 

23. Lady Jane Grey, who is described as a rare scholar, and 
a young woman of singular virtues and accomplishments, sent, 
on the day of her execution, a message to her hus- character of 
band, who desired to see her, informing him that J ane Gre y- 
the tenderness of their last interview would be too much for 



108 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [i55S 

her to bear. " Tell him," added she, " that our separation will 
be only for a moment. We shall soon meet each other in a 
place where our affections shall be forever united, and where 
misfortunes will never more disturb our eternal felicity." Lady 
Jane's tutor was Sir Roger Ascham, one of the most eminent 
scholars of the time, and a distinguished teacher, who numbered 
among his pupils Queen Elizabeth, Edward VI., and many of 
the children of the nobility. 

24. Mary was educated a strict Catholic ; and she caused to 
be annulled many of the acts of her father, Henry VIII., and 
Mary and °f ner brother, Edward VI., in favor of the Prot- 
her religion, estants ; and the Catholic religion was restored. 
Northumberland was beheaded ; and Archbishop Cranmer, who 
assisted Henry VIII. in his divorce from Mary's mother, was 
imprisoned in the Tower. 

25. Mary's early life was one of sorrow and suffering. The 
unfortunate influence of her father's domestic life, and the fear 

, ■ and persecution which she suffered at the hands of 

Mary s char- x 

acterand her enemies, unfavorably affected her health and 
pohcy. temper : hence, in her efforts to re-establish and 

protect the Catholic Church, which she sincerely believed to be 
the true church, she was led to extreme measures. A general 
persecution was commenced against the reformers. The men 
Persecu- wno fta -d been most forward in establishing the Prot- 
tions. estant religion in England were singled out for pun- 

ishment ; and among the most eminent martyrs who were burnt 
at Smithfield and at Oxford about 1555 were Archbishop Cran- 
mer, John Rogers (canon of St. Paul's), and Bishops Latimer, 
Ridley, Hooper, and Ferrar. More than two hundred and eighty 
persons perished at the stake, including fifty-five women and 
four children. By these proceedings the feelings of the people 
were shocked. The excellent character of most of the sufferers, 
and the undaunted spirit which they exhibited, produced a strong 
sensation in their favor, and diminished the influence of the 
Church of Rome ; so that these measures tended to forward, 
rather than to check, the progress of the Reformation. 



1558.] THE TUDOR FAMILY. lOg 

26. Through the influence of her husband, Mary became 
involved in the war between Spain and France; and in 1558 
the French, under the Duke of Guise ( Gweez) , The l0SS of 
besieged and retook Calais, which had been in the Calais, 
hands of the English more than two hundred years. The loss 
of this stronghold, the last of her possessions in France, was a 
severe blow to the queen ; and soon after this event she died, 
feeling bitter vexation for the loss, and for being aware that she 
was an object of aversion to her husband and to a great part 
of her subjects. Mary's history has been oftener written by her 
enemies, and in a partisan spirit, than by her friends ; and it is 
more than probable that full justice has not been done to some 
of her virtues and good qualities, which are matters of history, 
though seldom mentioned or made prominent. 

27. The accession of Elizabeth to the throne in 1558, was 
hailed by the nation with joyful acclamations. Scarcely had 
she entered upon her new duties when she received Elizabeth . s 
an offer of marriage from Philip II. of Spain, the offers of 
husband of her late sister Mary. Philip's kingdom marna s e - 

at this time embraced Spain, Portugal, Italy, the Netherlands, 
and portions of the East and the West Indies ; and he hoped, 
by marrying Elizabeth, to add England also to his realm. But 
the offer was declined, as were similar ones from the kings of 
Denmark and Sweden. In the following year the Commons 
asked the queen to fix her choice of a husband : but she re- 
plied that she had espoused the kingdom ; England was her 
husband, and all Englishmen her children ; and that, while en- 
gaged in rearing such a family, her life could not be considered 
unprofitable. 

28. Elizabeth had a long and auspicious reign, during which 
tranquillity was maintained in her dominions, while the neigh- 
boring nations were convulsed with dissensions ; and character 
England rose from the rank of a secondary king- of her reign, 
dom to a level with the first states of Europe. The Protestant 
religion was again restored and protected, and the Church of 
England was established in its present form. 



HO HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [156& 

Two important acts were passed soon after her accession to 
the throne. The first, called " The Act of Supremacy," required 
all officers, spiritual and temporal, to acknowledge Elizabeth 
under oath as " Supreme Governor " of the Church, as well as of 
the realm. Severe penalties were inflicted upon those refusing. 
The other statute was " The Act of Uniformity ; " compelling all 
the subjects of the kingdom, under penalty of a fine, to attend 
the service and mode of worship prescribed in the Book of 
Common Prayer, and forbidding any one to conduct any other 
service. Several bishops and other ecclesiastics refused the oath, 
and resigned, or were deprived of their places. Many Catholics, 
also, fled to foreign lands ; and a large number of Protestants 
who had sought homes abroad during the reign of Mary, and 
had now returned, refused to obey the law. Believing in a 
simpler mode of worship than that prescribed, and in a purer 
life, they were reproachfully called "Puritans." In 1566 they 
separated from the Established Church, and were called, also, 
" Dissenters " and " Nonconformists." 

The nation attained a higher state of prosperity than it had 
ever before known in agriculture, commerce, arts, and literature. 
This reign, often called the " Augustan age of English literature," 
was illustrated by the great names of Hooker (one of the most 
eminent divines), Bacon the philosopher, Spenser the author of 
"The Faery Queen," and Shakspeare. 

29. Elizabeth is charged with treachery and cruelty in her 
treatment of Mary, Queen of Scots, — a woman whose extraor- 
Mary, Queen dinary beauty and misfortunes have occupied a 
of Scots. prominent place in the pages of history. Mary 
was great-grand-daughter of Henry VII., and next heir to 
Elizabeth to the throne of England. She had been educated 
in France as a Catholic, and married, when very young, to the 
dauphin, afterwards Francis II. She had been persuaded to 
assume the title of "Queen of England," — a circumstance 
which proved fatal to her peace. On the death of Francis she 
returned to Scotland, at the age of eighteen years. At this 



t&7>] THE 7UD0R FAMILY. in 

period the Reformation, by the zealous labors of John Knox, 
had made great progress in that country ; and Mary had con- 
ceded religious toleration to her subjects. But the Protestant 
people regarded their Catholic queen with displeasure, and 
looked to her enemy Elizabeth for support. 

Mary married, for her second husband, her cousin Henry 
Stuart (Lord Darnley), who proved himself to be a worthless 
person. In less than two years, Darnley was murdered by a 
band of conspirators ; but there is no proof that Mary was an 
accomplice in the crime. Soon afterwards she married the Earl 
of Bothwell, a bold and unscrupulous man, who had been sus- 
pected of complicity in Darnley's death. This act aroused the 
kingdom against her, and civil war ensued. Bothwell fled ; and 
Mary was taken, confined in the Castle of Loch Leven, and was 
at length compelled to resign the crown to her infant son, who 
was proclaimed James VI. ; and her brother, the Earl of Murray, 
was appointed regent during the young king's minority. 

In less than a year Mary, by the assistance of friends, effected 
her escape from Loch Leven Castle, and fled into England, 
hoping to secure the favor of her rival, Elizabeth. In this, how- 
ever, she was disappointed. After being kept as a prisoner more 
than eighteen years in different places, she was tried on an 
accusation of having been accessory to a conspiracy against the 
Queen of England, was condemned, and beheaded in one of 
the rooms of Fotheringay Castle, in the forty-fifth year of her 
age. 

30. Elizabeth warmly espoused the cause of the Netherlands 
in their revolt against the authority of Philip II. of Spain ; and 
her admiral, Sir Francis Drake, had taken some of The Spanish 
the Spanish possessions in South America. To Armada, 
avenge these offences, and to subjugate the leading Protestant 
power, the Spanish " Invincible Armada," a more formidable 
fleet than Europe had ever before witnessed, was fitted out for 
the invasion of England. 

This armament consisted of a hundred and fifty ships, three 



112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1567. 

thousand pieces of cannon, and twenty-seven thousand men. 
It entered the English Channel in the form of a crescent, 
extending its two extremities to the distance of seven miles. 
It was met by the English fleet, consisting of a hundred and 
eight ships, commanded by those distinguished maritime chiefs, 
Howard, Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and Raleigh. Being 
gradually weakened, and finally overtaken by a storm, the 
Armada suffered an entire defeat. Only fifty vessels, with six 
thousand men, returned to Spain. 

31. The age of Elizabeth was fruitful in men of talents ; and 
she was assisted in her government by eminent statesmen, 
Eminent among whom were Sir Nicholas Bacon, Sir Francis 
statesmen. Walsingham, an able statesman and diplomatist, and 
William Cecil (Ses'-il), who was prime-minister of the realm 
for about forty years, and was the principal director and man- 
ager of the government. These men were wholly devoted to 
the interests of the nation. But her chief personal favorites 
were unworthy. Of these, in the early part of her reign, the 
principal was Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. After his death, 
Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, a young nobleman of accom- 
plishments, talents, and high spirit, possessed the first place in 
her affections. The queen and Essex had many quarrels and 
reconciliations ; but his brilliant career was finally brought to a 
sad and tragical end. 

32. Elizabeth's attention was frequently called to the un- 
settled state of Scotland and Ireland, both of which had re- 
Eariof ceived sympathy and assistance from France and 
Essex. Spain. An Irish chieftain, whom the queen had 
made Earl of Tyrone, raised the standard of revolt, and for 
some time defied all attempts to reduce him and his clan to. 
subjection. Finally Essex was intrusted with an army for quell- 
ing this rebellion. But his blunders and delays soon brought 
upon him a reprimand from the queen : whereupon he hastily 
returned to London, thereby incurring the displeasure of Eliza- 
beth, who immediately curtailed his liberty, and caused his 



1603.] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 113 

movements to be closely watched. Failing to regain the 
queen's confidence, and to secure the continuance of some 
commercial monopolies which he had formerly enjoyed, Essex 
finally broke into open rebellion, and attempted to seize the 
government; but his plans were frustrated (1601), and he was 
convicted of treason, and beheaded. 

33. Elizabeth, who had surprised the nations of Europe by 
the splendor of her course, was destined to close the evening 
of her life in gloom and sorrow. Some ascribe the Elizabeth's 
deep depression and mental suffering which she at last da y s - 
this period endured, to the neglect which she imagined she ex- 
perienced on account of her age and infirmities, when, to use 
her own expression, " men would turn their backs on the setting 
to worship the rising sun ; " others, to the revival of her regret 
for the death of Essex, whom she had given up for his invinci- 
ble obstinacy, but who, she now discovered, had actually thrown 
himself upon her clemency, while his enemies had found means 
to conceal his application. The Countess of Nottingham, now 
upon her death-bed (according to various historians), sent for 
the queen, to confess to her that Essex, while under the sen- 
tence of death, had desired her to convey to Elizabeth a ring 
which she had given him with the assurance that the sight of 
it would at any time recall her tenderness ; but that she had 
neglected to deliver it. The queen, in a frenzy of passion, 
shook the dying countess, exclaiming, " God may forgive you, 
but I never can ! " From that moment she sank into a deep 
melancholy, rejected all sustenance, and died (1603) in pro- 
found grief, in the forty-fifth year of her reign and the seventieth 
of her age. 

34. Elizabeth was distinguished for her learning, and spoke 
fluently Greek, Latin, French, and Spanish. She possessed 
extraordinary talents for government, was great as a Her charac 
public character, and commanded the high respect ter as a 

of her subjects and of foreign nations. Her three soverei e n - 
leading maxims of policy were to secure the affections of her 



H4 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. (1603. 

subjects, to be frugal of her treasures, and to excite dissensions 
among her enemies. She manifested less regard for the liberty 
than for the prosperity of the people. In the former part of 
her reign, she was comparatively moderate and humble, but 
afterwards haughty and severe. Both her disposition and her 
principles were despotic. With regard to religion, she perse- 
cuted both Catholics and Puritans ; but, like her father, she had 
a leaning towards the doctrines of the Romish Church in almos 
every thing except the doctrine of Papal supremacy. 

35. Her private character is less to be admired, being tar- 
nished with insincerity and cruelty, and destitute of the milder 
Private an d softer virtues of her sex. Her manners were 
character. haughty and overbearing, and her conversation 
grossly profane. Not only was she vain of her beauty (which 
she only could discover), and delighted with the praise of her 
charms, even at the age of sixty-five, but was jealous of every 
female competitor to a degree which the youngest and silliest 
of her sex might despise. She was also subject to sallies of 
anger which no sense of dignity could restrain ; and on the 
whole she furnished a remarkable instance of great moral weak- 
nesses united with high intellectual superiority. 

36. The reign of Elizabeth was signalized by the circumnavi- 
gation of the globe by Sir Francis Drake (1580), the first Eng- 
important lishman who accomplished that feat ; also by the 
events. introduction of potatoes and tobacco from America, 
pocket-watches from Germany, paper-making, and coaches. 
In 1563 knives began to be manufactured in London, the first 
branch of cutlery established in the country. The population 
of London in that year is said to have been a hundred and 
sixty-three thousand. 

Trinity College (Dublin), Westminster School (London), and 
the famous school at Rugby, were all established in this reign. 
Sir Thomas Gresham, a wealthy London trader, erected (1566) 
a magnificent edifice for the merchants as a place of meeting, 
and which the queen named the Royal Exchange. 



1603.] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 115 

In 1600 a company of London merchants met at the house 
of one of their number, and subscribed a capital of thirty thou- 
sand pounds to purchase a vessel to trade with the East Indies ; 
and they received a charter soon afterwards from Elizabeth. 
This was the beginning of that great commercial monopoly, the 
East-India Company, which ultimately led to British rule in 
India. 

EVENTS AND SOCIETY OF THE TUDOR PERIOD. 

37. The reign of the Tudor family in England covers the 
entire period of the sixteenth century, with a slight overlapping 
at each end of that century, — or, more exactly political 
(1485-1603), a period of one hundred and eigh- events, 
teen years. Politically the period was an important one on 
account of the practical extinction of the feudal system and the 
checking of the power of the nobles ; the bold assertion and 
exercise of the prerogative of the sovereign, especially by Henry 
VIII. ; the enactment of many important laws relating to the 
Church ; and the progress made by the House of Commons, 
the people's branch of Parliament, in influencing legislation, 
and particularly in making its assent necessary in granting 
supplies of money. 

38. But the prominent feature of the century was the revo- 
lution in ecclesiastical and religious affairs. From entire devo- 
tion to the Roman-Catholic Church, and yielding TneRefor- 

a large revenue to its support and treasury, England mation. 
became essentially Protestant, although many people still re- 
mained devoted to the Church of Rome. Instead of the Pope, 
the sovereign was made the ecclesiastical head of the Church ; 
the Bible was translated into the English language, and, by the 
aid of the printing-press, began to be widely read by the people. 
This change in religious affairs was not brought about without 
great convulsions, that shook society to its foundations. Passion 
and violence entered largely into the controversy on both sides, 
and neither party could claim much credit for the exercise of 
toleration. The consequences of the political and religious 



n6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1603. 

events of this century affected very materially the history of the 
century that followed. 

39. Trade and commerce flourished during this century ; and 
so successfully was ship-building carried on, that English ship- 
Trade and carpenters were in great demand in other countries, 
commerce. The spirit of nautical adventure, so prominent at 
the close of the previous century, continued to stimulate the 
minds of English merchants and adventurers. Cod-fishing on 
the Banks of Newfoundland was followed as early as 1536 ; and 
some time afterward vessels were sent into the northern seas to 
engage in whale-fishing. 

An attempt was made to discover a north-east passage to 
China, which was unsuccessful ; but it resulted in opening a 
trade with Russia. Japan and Greenland were visited. Sir 
Walter Raleigh and others made voyages along the coast of 
North America, and attempted, though unsuccessfully, to form 
settlements in the country. Many bold navigators in the time 
of Elizabeth sailed on marauding expeditions against Spanish 
commerce, from which they sometimes returned laden with rich 
booty. 

40. The activity of trade stimulated some branches of manu- 
factures. Silk was produced to some extent by foreign weavers ; 
Manufac- great improvement was made in the tanning of 
tures. leather; and the manufacture of cloth became a 
very extensive and profitable industry. In one year in the 
time of Elizabeth, English merchants exported to the Nether- 
lands, principally to Antwerp, cloth to the value of twelve mil- 
lion dollars. In this reign many London merchants became 
very rich. Silver shillings were first coined in England in the 
reign of Henry VII. 

41. In the early part of the century, agriculture was not 
greatly improved. Large tracts of land which had been for- 
merly cultivated were used for pasturage, partly on 

vv pri culture 

account of the scarcity of laborers after the abolition 
of villehage, and also on account of the great demand for wool. 



'6o 3 .] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 117 

The suppression of the monasteries occasioned a similar change 
in the use of much land. Numerous flocks of sheep were pas- 
tured by the peasants, and on some of the large estates there 
were to be found flocks numbering from ten to twenty thousand. 

But during the latter half of the century more attention was 
given to the cultivation of the soil, and a greater variety of 
products was the result. The introduction of clover made the 
land capable of supporting more cattle, sheep, and horses ; and 
hops were extensively cultivated. From the Continent were 
introduced and cultivated salads, cabbages, melons, and arti- 
chokes, as were also several delicious fruits, such as apricots, 
currants, plums, cherries, gooseberries, and pippins from the 
East and from Southern Europe. Pleasure-gardens were well 
laid out with terraces, and ornamented with vases and fountains ; 
and there were introduced the gillyflower, the carnation-pink, 
and several varieties of roses, including the musk-rose. 

The farmers' wives performed their full share of labor in the 
support of the family. They spun and wove wool and flax for 
the clothing of the household ; and an old writer Labor of 
says it was the duty of a good housewife " to win- women, 
now all manner of corn, to make malt, to wash, and to make 
hay, shear corn, and in time of need help her husband fill the 
muck-wain, drive the plough, to load hay, corn, and such other, 
and to go to market and sell butter and pigs, fowls, or corn." 

42. The common people were generally industrious and con- 
tented ; though begging and robbery were common, and often 
called for the interposition of the strong arm of the condition of 
law. Henry VIII. regarded poverty as a kind of the people, 
crime ; and he had severe laws passed to prevent begging, in- 
cluding one against the gypsies, so called because they were 
supposed to have come originally from Egypt. But in the time 
of Elizabeth charitable efforts were made to relieve and encour- 
age the worthy poor, although idlers and vagabonds were placed 
in the stocks or in the house of correction. 

43. The Tudor style of architecture, which was a combination 



Il8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [i6°3- 

of the Italian and the Gothic, was an improvement on what had 
preceded it. In point of elegance and convenience 
and furni- it reached its great excellence in the time of Eliza- 
ture. beth. The hall of the noble and the manor-house 

of the squire were built for comfort and elegancy and not, like 
the old baronial castles, for defence. These manor-houses and 
the dwellings of the wealthier classes were well built, and were 
generally of a style in which two projecting wings, with an inter- 
mediate porch, were supposed to represent the letter E, the 
queen's initial, and hence called the Elizabethan style. In 
accordance with the Italian custom, the principal apartments 
were above ; and hence the entrance-hall and stairway were 
finished with much style and decoration. 

Furniture was costly, and elaborately carved and inlaid. 
Chairs were covered with velvet, and beds and bedsteads were 
rich in material and finish. Glass mirrors were introduced from 
France, and floor carpets from the East ; and the latter soon 
began to be woven in England. Turkish carpets were used in 
the time of Edward VI. as table-covers. Ornamental clocks 
began to be used in the best houses ; and one placed in the 
palace at Hampton Court (1540) is still in existence. 

The houses of the farmers and peasants were improved much 
during the century. In the time of Elizabeth they were usually 
built of stone or brick, instead of timbers and wattle ; and many 
articles of useful furniture were introduced. Feather-beds had 
taken the place of the pallet of straw. 

44. The style of living among the nobility during the latter 
part of the sixteenth century was luxurious, and attended with 
style of Hv- niuch ceremony and ostentation. In this respect 
in &- the royal household of Elizabeth was surpassed by 

none. Her dining-hall resounded with the music of drums and 
trumpets. Twenty-four courses were served at dinner on gilded 
dishes, and were brought in by gentlemen and lady attendants 
in gorgeous costume. As a protection against poisoning, every 
person who "brought in a dish of food was obliged to taste of 
th^ same before it was placed upon the royal table. 



i6o 3 .] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 119 

45. Among the nobility, entertainments and feasting were 
conducted in a more stately and dignified manner than in the 
preceding century ; the boisterousness, jesting, and Feasting 
buffoonery of earlier times having been laid aside. and food - 
On such occasions enormous quantities of food and beer were 
consumed, and servants were numerous. Lord Burleigh's house- 
hold was served by a hundred servants. Robert Dudley, Earl 
of Leicester, entertained Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth Castle 
for a period of seventeen days at an expense of eighty-five 
thousand dollars, equivalent to half a million dollars at the 
present time. On that occasion it is stated that three hundred 
and sixty-five hogsheads of beer were consumed. 

Meat, bread, and fruits were the principal articles of food at 
feasts, sweets and confections being only occasional luxuries ; 
and beer and wine were the common drinks. Only the nobility 
and the rich could afford wheaten bread all the time ; the farm- 
hands and the lower classes using bread of barley and rye, and 
sometimes mixed and ground with peas, beans, and oats. 

Table-cloths and napkins were in common use, and pewter 
plates had begun to take the place of wooden trenchers. On 
the tables of the wealthy, there was a great display of plate, 
which was valued according to its weight, and not for its finish, 
which was not elaborate. Table-forks were not yet used in 
England. It is mentioned that guests washed before eating, 
and that men wore their hats at table. 

Thomas Tusser, who flourished in the time of Elizabeth, and 
was "musician, schoolmaster, husbandman, and poet," wrote a 
work in verse on " Good Husbandry and Good Housewifery." 
In this work he gives the following conditions for good cheer : — 

" Good bread and good drink, a good fire in the hall ; 
Brawn, pudding, and sauce, and good mustard withal; 
Beef, mutton, and pork, shred pies of the best ; 
Pig, veal, goose, and capon, and turkey well drest; 
Cheese, apples, and nuts, jolly carols to hear, 
As these in the country is counted good cheer." 



120 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1605. 

46. The styles of dress were various, and often extravagant 
and grotesque, although not so absurd as in the last century. 

The unsightly tall head-dresses for a long time in 

vogue were discarded ; and in their place were 

worn caps or bonnets of velvet, and felt with feathers, which 

were often quite picturesque. Broad turn-over collars of fur 

or velvet were worn by both sexes. 

In the time of Henry VIII. men were required to cut their 
hair short, but the beard and mustache were allowed to grow 
long. In the reign of Elizabeth, knit stockings of silk or 
worsted began to take the place of hose made of cloth. Women 
wore their hair curled and frizzled about the head, and also 
hanging at length upon the back and shoulders. False hair was 
common, the color being governed by fashion. At the age of 
sixty-seven, Queen Elizabeth wore false hair of red color, which 
was the original hue of her own. Perfumed gloves trimmed 
with gold and silver and jewelry were much worn ; and pins 
with heads, for fastening garments, became quite common, in 
place of loops, strings, and other contrivances formerly in use 
for such purposes. The personal appearance of the ladies was 
greatly marred by the dark color of their teeth, occasioned by 
smoking tobacco, which became fashionable after Sir Walter 
Raleigh introduced that weed into England. 

Several laws were passed during the century, forbidding excess 
and extravagance in dress ; but they were little regarded during 
the reign of Elizabeth, who herself set the people an example 
of extravagance. It is related that she would never allow a 
dress to be given away, or otherwise disposed of; and at he<r 
death the number in her wardrobe was three thousand. 

47. Amusements and festivals of various kinds were partici- 
pated in by all classes Costly pageants upon land and upon 
Amuse- tne water, music and dancing, moralities (a kind of 
ments. allegorical dialogue), cock-fighting, horse-racing, 
and bull and bear baiting, were popular forms of recreation. 

Christmas was a joyous time for the whole people, and St. 



i6o 3 .] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 1 21 

Valentine's Day was the time for love-making. May Day was 
one of the great national holidays. The young people went to 
the woods on the morning of that day to obtain the May-pole, 
which was drawn into the village by many yoke of oxen, with 
their horns decorated with ribbons and flowers. Around this 
pole, adorned with gay streamers, the young people danced in 
holiday attire. The milkmaid's dance, a common pastime, also 
took place on this day. With huge piles of borrowed silverware 
upon their heads, they danced from house to house, receiving 
a small gratuity in money from the occupants. 

48. Weddings were occasions of great joy and hilarity among 
all classes. The village bride was escorted to the church by 
her young friends, decked with ribbons and rose- 

Wedding's* 

mary, and bearing the bride-cup of wine, and 

followed by maidens carrying cake, and garlands of wheat, and 

filling the air with music and joyous shouting. 

49. The printing-press became the means of diffusing much 
information among the reading classes, and the colleges gave a 
good education to those who resorted to them. 

Girls were generally taught at home by private 
tutors. Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and Lady Jane Grey were all 
fine classical scholars, and distinguished for their varied attain- 
ments. Grammar or secondary schools were established for 
the middling classes, in which were taught the common and 
some of the higher branches. But the great mass of the people 
were deplorably ignorant. It is related that Shakspeare's father, 
though an alderman, was not able to write his own name. 

50. Art made little progress in the time of the Tudors, 
though portrait-painting was cultivated somewhat. Hans Hol- 
bein the younger, a distinguished German portrait 

and historical painter, spent most of his life in 

England, and was patronized by Henry VIII., who was the first 

person that made a collection of paintings in England. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE STUART FAMILY (PART I.). 

(FROM JAMES I. TO THE COMMONWEALTH.) 

1603 to 1649, — 46 years. 
James I. Charles I. 

ELIZABETH, on the approach of death, nominated for hei 
successor the son of her rival Mary, James VI. of Scot- 
Character of land, who was the rightful heir by descent. He 
the Stuarts. too k t h e t j t ] e f j am es I. of England (1603), 
and in him the two crowns were united. He was the first of 
the Stuarts, — a family whose reign was one continued struggle 
for power between the monarch and the people, and who were 
characterized by despotic principles, injudicious conduct, and 
such a want of gratitude and good faith as to be proverbial for 
leaving their friends in distress. 

2. James had scarcely arrived in England when a conspiracy 
fras discovered for subverting the government, and placing on 
a. con- the throne his cousin, Arabella Stuart. The cele- 

spiracy. brated Sir Walter Raleigh, who had been distin- 

guished in the preceding reign, was sentenced to death on an 
accusation of being connected in this plot. He was, however, 
reprieved, and cast into the Tower, where he remained thirteen 
years, during which time he wrote his " History of the World." 
He secured his release from prison by bribery, it was said, to 
engage in a gold-hunting expedition in Guiana, which proved 
unsuccessful. During an exploring-tour up the Orinoco, some 
of his party had a hostile engagement with some Spaniards at 



1605.] THE STUART FAMILY. 123 

St. Thomas. After his return to England, the Spanish court 
demanded that he should be punished ; and James, reviving 
the sentence passed upon him fifteen years before, caused him 
to be barbarously beheaded. He was a valiant soldier and a 
famous navigator, and as a scholar and writer was one of the 
first men of the age. He is said to have gained the favor of 
Elizabeth by an act of gallantry. In passing from her carriage 
to the palace, the queen was about to step into the mud and 
water, whereupon Raleigh threw his richly embroidered cloak 
upon the ground, over which she walked with great compla- 
cency. 

3. The Catholics had been hopeful of favors from James, as 
his mother had been a devout Catholic ; but in this they were 
doomed to disappointment. The severity of the Gunpowder 
laws against them was not relaxed. The king es- P lot - 
poused the cause of the Established Church, and became 
intolerant of both Catholics and Dissenters. 

Another conspiracy followed, of a more daring nature. This 
was the famous "Gunpowder Plot," — a design of some fanatical 
Catholics to blow up the parliament-house, and involve in one 
common destruction the king, lords, and commons. The leader 
of the conspiracy was Robert Catesby, a country gentleman of 
an ancient and wealthy family; and all the members were 
pledged by oath to the utmost secrecy. They hired a cellar 
under the parliament-house, ostensibly for business purposes, 
into which they conveyed thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, and 
covered it with fagots. Guy Fawkes, a Yorkshireman who had 
done military service in the Netherlands, was hired as keeper 
of the cellar, and to carry the plot into execution. 

Lord Mounteagle, a Catholic member of Parliament, received 
an anonymous letter urging him to absent himself from the 
opening session on the 5th of November (1605). This led 
to an investigation and to placing a watch upon the premises. 
During the night of the 4th, as Fawkes opened the door of 
the cellar, he was seized by soldiers, and secured. Slow-matches 



124 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1611. 

for firing the magazine were found in his pocket, and behind 
the door was a dark-lantern burning. This lantern is still pre- 
served in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Upon the arrest 
of Fawkes, the conspirators fled into the country, whither they 
were pursued ; and some of them were shot, while others were 
arrested, and, with Fawkes, were tried, convicted, and exe- 
cuted. Before his execution, Fawkes was put to the torture ; 
and, although he boldly avowed his purpose, he made no con- 
fession concerning his confederates. The exposure of this plot 
led to the enactment of still severer laws against the Catholics. 

4. Soon after James's accession, a convention of divines was 
held for the discussion of religious subjects, at which he was 

one of the principal speakers ; and he declared, 
that, if the dissenters did not " conform," he would 
" harry them out of the land," — a threat afterwards not wholly 
unaccomplished. He visited Scotland for the purpose of intro- 
ducing the Established Church there, but was not favorably 
received. His countrymen even accused him of being a traitor 
to the religion in which he was educated, and to the promises 
he made while King of Scotland. 

5. The version of the Bible known as King James's Version, 
_. , the one now in use by Protestants, was made during 

The common J " 

English the reign of James (1611) by a large committee 

Bible. ^ £ livings an d scholars appointed by the king for 
that purpose. 

6. The spirit of commercial enterprise, so active in the time 
of Elizabeth, gave rise in this reign to extensive schemes of 
American colonization, one of which resulted in planting a 
Colonies. colony on James River in Virginia, the oldest Eng- 
lish town in the United States, and which, in honor of the king, 
was called Jamestown. 

During the reign of Mary, the Puritans first made their 
The Puri- appearance ; and in the time of Elizabeth they 
tans. became, in a considerable degree, conspicuous. 

They were strenuous advocates for freedom in the state, and a, 



1 620.] THE STUART FAMILY. 125 

more thorough reformation in religion. A great majority of the 
Puritans remained in the Established Church, though protesting 
against some of its doctrines and practices. At the accession 
of James they cherished high hopes that their views would meet 
with more favor than during the reign of the late queen, inas- 
much as he had been educated in Presbyterianism. But, of all 
persons, they were the most disappointed. So great was their 
dissatisfaction, that some of them sought refuge from their 
restraints and persecutions in Holland. Having withdrawn 
from the Established Church, they were called "Separatists," or 
" Independents," and afterwards, from their wanderings, were 
known as the "Pilgrims." After a residence of several years in 
Holland, a company of them left Delfthaven (1620), and, being 
joined by friends from England, sailed across the ocean to the 
wilderness of America, and began at Plymouth the first settle- 
ment in New England. 

7. It was the characteristic weakness of James to attach him- 
self to worthless favorites : such were Carr, Earl of Somerset, 
and Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, — men on whom Bad asso- 
he bestowed his favors with the utmost prodigality, ciates. 
though they were of profligate character, odious to the people, 
and were possessed of no merit, except external beauty and 
superficial accomplishments. 

8. But some of the king's counsellors were men of ability 
and distinction. His first prime-minister was Rob- 

Counscllors. 

ert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, who had held the 
same office during the latter part of Elizabeth's reign, and who 
was the son of Lord Burleigh. He was an able statesman and 
an adroit negotiator, but is censured for promoting or permit- 
ting the ruin of his rivals, — Raleigh and Essex. Francis Bacon 
was attorney-general, keeper of the seals, and lord high chan- 
cellor; but he was accused and convicted of bribery, fined 
forty thousand pounds, and imprisoned for a time in the Tower. 
He was a man of great ability, of the highest distinction as a 
scholar and an author, and inaugurated a system of philosophy 



126 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1625. 

that laid the foundation of modern science ; but his greatness 
was sadly shaded by his moral weakness, if not by corruption. 
Pope gave him the stinging characteristic of " The wisest, bright- 
est, and meanest of mankind." 

9. The leading characteristic of James was his love of arbi- 
trary power. The divine right of kings to govern their subjects 
James as a was h^ s favorite topic in conversation and in his 
ruler. speeches to Parliament. He wrote a book in de- 
fence of this doctrine, and maintained that sovereigns should 
govern according to their own will, and that the duty of subjects 
is obedience. Some of the bishops and nobility supported him 
in these views ; but the House of Commons gave no counte- 
nance to such doctrines, and it was the misfortune of the king 
to be often at variance with his Parliaments. His habits led 
to frequent calls for money ; but the Commons seldom made a 
grant until some grievance complained of was redressed. To 
replenish his empty treasury, he created the title of baronet, an 
hereditary dignity between a baron and a knight, and sold two 
hundred of them for a thousand pounds each. 

10. The increase of commerce and the consequent influx 
of wealth, the diffusion of information, the disappointed hopes 
Spirit of ub- and the privations of the Puritans (who had become 
ert y- numerous), and the controversies in which they were 
engaged, all conspired to diffuse widely the spirit of liberty. 
The current of public opinion was now strongly turned to an 
extension of the rights of the people and to a retrenchment of 
the power of the sovereign ; and it was during this reign that 
the seeds were sown of that spirit of resistance to despotic 
power, on the part of the people, which in the next produced 
a subversion of the monarchy. 

11. James died of ague in March, 1625. While King of 
Scotland, he had married Ann of Denmark. Of several chil- 
Death, and dren, but two survived him, — Elizabeth, who mar- 
famiiy. r [ t ^ Count Palatine, — a German prince, and for a 
short time King of Bohemia, — and Charles, the Prince of 
Wales, who succeeded his father upon the throne. 



i62 S .] THE STUART FAMILY. 12 j 

12. In person James was tall and exceedingly awkward ; and, 
although very fond of the chase, he was a very bad rider. His 
costume is described as consisting of a doublet, Person and 
or short jacket, quilted to avoid assassination; character, 
breeches in large plaits, and stuffed ; long tight-fitting silk hose ; 
shoes with rosettes ; and a high-peaked hat with a feather. 

His subjects had little respect for his personal character ; for 
his morals were far from being pure, drunkenness being one of 
his besetting sins. The sight of a naked sword almost caused 
him to shudder, and he lived in constant fear of witches. He 
possessed a good deal of learning, but more pedantry, and was 
the author of several books, including one on "The Divine 
Right of Kings," a "Counterblast to Tobacco," one on " De- 
monology," and a " Book of Sports," in which he recommends 
wrestling, archery, and other games, to be practised on Sunday, 
"after evening prayers." The religious public of all classes 
condemned this book. 

The king's greatest weakness was his excessive fondness for 
flattery, which was dealt out to him with an unsparing hand by 
his bishops and parasites, who styled him the " British Solo- 
mon ; " but the Duke of Sully called him " The wisest fool in 
Europe." But the best part of his character was his pacific 
disposition ; and his reign, which lasted twenty-two years, though 
ignoble to himself, was in many respects happy to his people, 
who were enriched by peace and commerce. 

13. During this reign (1614) logarithms were invented by 
Napier, a Scotchman ; copper halfpence and farthings were 
first coined ; and Harvey made his famous discovery Events and 
(1619) of the circulation of the blood. The last persons, 
burnings for heresy were in 1 6 1 1 ; but the fagots were often 
lighted afterwards for the punishment of supposed witches. 
Among the celebrities of the age were Coke, an eminent judge 
and jurist ; Inigo Jones, the architect of Whitehall Palace ; and 
four distinguished poets and dramatists, — Ben Jonson, Beau- 
mont and Fletcher (who wrote plays together), and Shakspeare, 



128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1625 

who revolutionized the national drama of England, and who 
was the greatest writer of this class of his own or of any age. 
He died in his native place, Stratford-on-Avon, in 16 16, and 
was buried within the chancel of the village church, where the 
inscription written by the poet's own hand still meets the eyes 
of pilgrims to that shrine of genius : — 

" Good frend for Jesus sake forbeare 
To digg the dust encloased heare : 
Blest be ye man yt spares thes stones, 
And curst be he yt moves my bones." 

14. Charles I. ascended the throne (1625) in his twenty- 
fifth year, under favorable circumstances. His title was undis- 
state of the puted, and the kingdom was in a flourishing condi- 
kingdom. tion. But within the last fifty years public opinion 
in the nation had undergone a great change ; and many of his 
subjects were extremely jealous of their civil and religious 
liberties, and would no longer be governed by precedents which 
had their origin in times of ignorance and slavery. He soon 
gave proof that he inherited the same arbitrary principles with 
his father; and the same worthless favorite, Buckingham, re- 
tained his influence and authority. Soon after his accession, 
Charles married Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of 
France. 

15. In the latter part of the reign of James, Charles,, accom- 
panied by Buckingham, had visited the court of Madrid in 
. . . order to solicit the hand of the infanta in marriage. 

Arbitrary ° 

measures of The negotiation, however, failed through the mis- 
the king. conduct of Buckingham ; and England was involved 
in a war with Spain. Soon after Charles ascended the throne, 
he was offended with the Parliament for refusing to grant him 
sufficient supplies in carrying on this war, and for resisting his 
arbitrary designs ; and, having adopted the resolution to rule 
without their aid, he proceeded to levy money in various ways, 
independent of their authority. One of these methods was 
by a tax on merchandise, called " tonnage and poundage ± " 



1 628.] THE STUART FAMILY. 129 

and another by a tax called " ship-money." The money raised 
by the latter was now levied not only on seaport 
towns, but over the whole kingdom ; and Charles 
claimed the right to command his subjects, without an act of 
Parliament, to provide and furnish ships, together with men, 
victuals, and ammunition, in such numbers and at such time 
as he should think proper, — a claim which struck at the vital 
principle of a free government. This assessment of ship-money 
is the famous tax which first roused the whole nation at length 
to fix and determine, after a long continuance of an unsettled, 
constitution, the bounds of their own freedom and the king's 
prerogative. 

16. A noble stand was made against the payment of this im- 
position by John Hampden, a man who, on account of his high 
character for talents, integrity, and patriotism, pos- j ohn 
sessed the greatest influence in parliament and in Hampden, 
the nation. But although the venal judges decided the cause 
against him, yet he obtained the end for which he sacrificed his 
quiet and his safety. The people, believing that the decision 
was unjust, were roused from their lethargy, and became fully 
sensible of the danger to which their liberties were exposed. 

17. An important measure passed by the Commons early in 
the reign of Charles was called the "Petition of Rights," — a 
law which the king was compelled to sign, securing petition of 
the observance of certain rights guaranteed by Rights. 
Magna Charta, but which Charles had often disregarded. The 
principal grievances complained of were martial law, and the 
quartering of soldiers in private houses, forced loans and taxes 
without consent of Parliament, and arbitrary imprisonments. 
An important provision in Magna Charta provided that "no 
penalty shall be laid on any man but by the judgment of his 
peers, and according to law." This Petition of Rights has been 
called the "Second Great Charter" of the people of England. 

18. The Duke of Buckingham having been assassinated 
(1628) by Felton, an Irish fanatic, Thomas Wentworth, Earl 



130 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1640. 

of Strafford, the most able and devoted champion of the claims 
Strafford °f tne crown, and the most formidable enemy of 
and Laud. the liberties of the people, became the chief coun- 
sellor of the king ; and William Laud, afterwards Archbishop 
of Canterbury, a thorough hater of the Puritans, had the prin- 
cipal influence in ecclesiastical affairs. 

The current of the public sentiment was now running strongly 
towards Puritanism, in favor of a simpler form of worship. But 
Laud, so far from countenancing this tendency, had overloaded 
the church with new ceremonies, which were displeasing to the 
people, and which he enforced with the most intolerant zeal. 

Not satisfied with attempting to enforce conformity in Eng- 
land, the king undertook to establish episcopacy in Scotland 
. . also, and to impose the use of the English liturgy 

to episco- upon the national church. This measure excited a 
pacy. strong sensation among all ranks, from the peer to 

the peasant : even the women were not backward in manifesting 
opposition. In one of the churches of Edinburgh, on the day 
when the introduction of the liturgy was first attempted, no 
sooner had the service begun than an old woman, impelled by 
sudden indignation, started up, and, exclaiming aloud against 
the innovation, threw the stool on which she had been sitting 
at the preacher's head. The assembly was instantly in confusion, 
nor could the minister finish the service. The people from 
without burst open the doors, and broke the windows ; and a 
scene of great disorder brought the services to an end. The 
prelates were equally unsuccessful in most instances, throughout 
Scotland, in enforcing the liturgy. The National Covenant, 
which was first framed at the Reformation, and which renounced 
Episcopacy as well as Roman Catholicism, was renewed, and 
subscribed by all ranks. 

19. After eleven years' intermission, the king found it neces- 
The king and sar y m 1640 to convoke a parliament; but the 
parliament. House of Commons, instead of listening to his de- 
mands for supplies, began with presenting the public grievances 



i6 4 o.] THE STUART FAMILY. 131 

under three heads, — those of the broken privileges of Parlia- 
ment, of illegal taxes, and of violence done to the cause of 
religion. Charles, perceiving he had nothing favorable to hope 
from their deliberations, soon dissolved the Assembly. By an- 
other parliament not long afterwards assembled, which continued 
twenty years, and was called the " Long Parliament," Strafford 
and Laud were sent to the Tower on several charges of endeav- 
oring to subvert the constitution, and to introduce arbitrary 
power. Strafford was brought to trial on a charge of treason, 
and was condemned and beheaded ; and five years afterwards 
Laud suffered the same fate. 

20. Charles had, in 1629, violated the privileges of Parlia- 
ment by causing nine members to be imprisoned for the part 
which they had taken in debate. But he was now Bold meas _ 
betrayed into a still greater indiscretion, which con- ures of the 
tributed much towards kindling the flame of civil king * 
war. This was the impeachment of Lord Kimbolton and five 
distinguished commoners, — Pym, Hampden, Hollis, Hazlerig, 
and Strode, — and his going himself to the House to seize them, 
leaving two hundred armed men at the door. Having entered 
the House, he ordered the speaker, Lenthal, to point them out. 
" Sir," answered the speaker, falling on his knees, " I have 
neither eyes to see, nor tongue to speak, in this place, but as 
the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am ; and I 
humbly ask pardon that I cannot give any other answer to what 
your Majesty is pleased to demand of me." The king with- 
drew without effecting his object, amidst low but distinct mur- 
murs of " Privilege, privilege ! " This ill-advised and abortive 
attempt, which was condemned both by his friends and enemies, 
completed the degradation of the unfortunate monarch. He 
afterwards apologized to Parliament for this conduct. But the 
day of reconciliation was past : he had lost the confidence of 
that body ; and they were now prepared, not only to confine his 
power within legal bounds, but to strip him of his constitutional 
authority. 



132 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



[164a 



21. Both parties resolved to stake the issue of the contest on 

the sword, and the standard of civil war was now (1642) erected. 

The cause of the kinar was supported by three-fourths 

Civil war • * * J 

and its of the nobility and superior gentry, by the bishops, 

parties. an( j ac [ V ocates of episcopacy, and by the Catholics ; 

that of the Parliament, by the yeomanry of the country, the 
merchants and tradesmen in the towns, by the Puritans, or 
opponents of episcopacy, comprising the Presbyterians, Inde- 
pendents, and other dissenters. The supporters of the king 

were styled " Cavaliers ; " those 
of the Parliament, " Round- 
heads," — an appellation given 
to them by their adversaries be- 
cause many of them cropped 
their hair short. 

22. A religious spirit, un- 
fortunately tinctured with fa- 
naticism, extravagance, and 
party feeling, was "at this period 
widely diffused throughout 
Great Britain ; and it formed 
a prominent characteristic of 
most of the leaders in Parlia- 
ment, and also of those who 
took up arms in defence of 
their liberties. The charge of 
license and excess fell chiefly on- the royalists, a great part 
of whom were men of pleasure, disposed to deride the sanctity 
and austere morality of their opponents. " All the sober men 
that I was acquainted with, who were against the Parliament," 
says the celebrated Richard Baxter, " used to say, ' The king 
had the better cause, but the Parliament had the better men.' " 

23. England had been comparatively but little engaged in 
war since the accession of Henry VII., and it had but few men 
of military experience. T 1 ^ chief commanders in the roya] 




A CAVALIER. 



i643-] 



THE S TUA RT FA MIL Y. 



*33 



Edgehill. 



army, besides the king, were the Earl of Lindsey, Prince Rupert 
(nephew of Charles, and son of the King of Bo- Leaders and 
hernia) , and Sir Jacob Astley ; and in the parlia- battles, 
mentary army the Earl of Essex (son of Essex, the favorite of 
Elizabeth) had the chief command at first, then Lord Fairfax, 
and afterwards Oliver Cromwell (a cousin of John Hampden) . 

24. There were but few battles in the civil war that could be 
called great ; but there was much skirmishing, and many ma- 
rauding and plundering expeditions, as is common 
in wars of this kind. The first engagement of im- 
portance was at Edgehill (October, 1642), at which the king 
was present in person ; his troops being 
commanded by Rupert, while Essex was 
in charge of the parliamentary forces. 
Several thousand were slain ; but the 
battle was not decisive, although the 
royalists seemed rather to have gained 
the advantage. Charles had coined his 
plate into money to raise the troops 
employed on this occasion. Soon after 
the battle, he retired to Oxford, which 
was strongly fortified, and made his 
headquarters during the war. Here he 
occasionally held parliaments of such 
members as were friendly to his cause. 
In some of these parliaments he had at 
times a majority of the peers of the 
realm ; but the greater number of the 
commoners remained at Westminster. 




A ROUNDHEAD. 



25. Attempted negotiations for peace failed. In the winter 
of 1643 ^e queen returned from the Continent Foreign aid. 
with four ships, containing troops which she had Hampden, 
raised with funds obtained by selling the crown jewels in Hol- 
land. 

In the spring Essex took Reading; and at a skirmish in 



134 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1643. 

Chalgrove Field, near Oxford, in June, John Hampden was 
killed. He was an able advocate of human rights and a stanch 
friend of the people. Before the war, he and Cromwell had 
decided to emigrate to America ; but the vessel in which they 
were to sail was detained by order of the king's Council. 

26. In the summer, Bristol and the west surrendered to Ru- 
pert, and in the north the royalists more than held their own. 

Gloucester was besieged by the king, but was soon 
abandoned ; and the two armies met at Newbury 
(in September), where a fiercely contested battle lasted an 
entire day, and closed at night with no decisive results, although 
the royalists claimed it as a victory. Lord Falkland, a warm 
friend and secretary of state of the king, was slain. In former 
years he had belonged to the opposite party ; but believing that 
the king was right, and being desirous of peace, he espoused 
his sovereign's cause. 

27. The parliamentary party now sought an alliance with 
Scotland, for which purpose Sir Henry Vane was sent to Edin- 

burgh. Vane had resided in America, and had been 
with the governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, and a rep- 
Scots. resentative in the General Court from Boston. 

The Scots were Presbyterians, with an intense dislike for the 
Papacy ; but, in matters of religious liberty and toleration, they 
were not as liberal as the Independents, of whom Vane, Crom- 
well, and many of their associates, were members. 

As a condition of alliance, the Scots required the acceptance 
of their National Covenant, by which they hoped to introduce 
Solemn their form of religion into England. After much 

league and discussion, that instrument was modified, named the 
covenant. Solemn League and Covenant, and adopted by both 
parties. It required its supporters to unite for mutual defence, 
and for the extirpation of popery and prelacy, profaneness, 
superstition, and heresy ; also to maintain the king's authority, 
and the rights and privileges of Parliament. This covenant 
was subscribed to by more than two hundred members of the 



i6 4 4- j THE STUART FAMILY. 135 

Parliament at Westminster, and ordered to be signed by all 
under their authority. This virtually made Presbyterianism, for 
the time being, the national religion of the realm. 

28. Two or three years previous to these events, Charles had 
sent troops to Ireland to suppress a serious insurrection that 
had arisen there. These troops he now recalled R e . e nforce- 
for his own assistance ; but, soon after their arrival ments. 

in Wales, they were entirely defeated by Fairfax. 

As one of the fruits of the recent alliance, an army of forty 
thousand Scots, under Earl Leven, joined Fairfax in January, 
1644. In April the queen left Oxford for Exeter as a means 
of safety, afterwards crossed over to France, and never saw her 
husband again. 

29. Soon after midsummer (July 2) the opposing forces met 
at Marston Moor, a broad open plain a few miles from the old 
historic city of York, where the royalists, under Marston 
Rupert and the Marquis of Newcastle, met with a Moor, 
most signal defeat. Fairfax received efficient and timely aid 
from Oliver Cromwell, in command of a company of picked 
horsemen, whom he named Ironsides. The field was strewn 
with more than four thousand of the slain ; and Rupert left in 
the hands of the victors fifteen hundred prisoners, all his cannon, 
and more than a hundred banners. Newcastle, against whose 
advice Rupert rashly brought on the engagement, abandoned 
the cause, and went to France. 

This battle left the authority of Parliament supreme in the 
north ; although the Earl of Montrose, who had espoused the 
cause of Charles in Scotland, gained some victories over 
the Covenanters. 

30. In the west and south Essex met with some reverses, 
and nearly another year was spent in skirmishing movements 
and in the adjustment of difficulties that had arisen 

J The army. 

between different factions in Parliament. The army 
was remodelled, and recruited by the addition of many reli- 
gious enthusiasts, with Sir Thomas Fairfax as general-in-chief. 



136 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1645. 

Members of Parliament were made ineligible to office in the 
army ; but, in spite of this rule, Cromwell was appointed lieu- 
tenant-general. 

31. In June, 1645, tne ^ ast g reat battle of the war was fought 
at Naseby, at which the king was present in person. His army 

was totally routed, with a heavy loss in killed and 

Nsscbv 

prisoners ; and all his artillery, ammunition, and 
arms were left upon the field. The parliamentary party had a 
thousand killed. This victory was really due to the rashness 
of Rupert and the superior generalship of Cromwell. 

The king's cabinet was taken with his baggage ; and in it were 
found letters which proved that there was no sincerity in any 
of his efforts for reconciliation with Parliament, and that some 
of his proposals to secure assistance for his restoration were 
highly dishonorable. This circumstance was as disastrous to 
his cause as any battle he had lost. 

Rupert soon after surrendered Bristol, and, in disgrace with 
End of the tne king, left the country. The war was now virtu- 
war, ally at an end ; although Montrose continued his 
operations for a time in Scotland, and some of the king's garri- 
sons held out several months longer. 

32. Upon his defeat at Naseby, Charles retired to Oxford ; 
and, after several months of fruitless attempts to negotiate a 
Charles with peace with Parliament, he escaped to the army of 
the Scots. the Scots at Newark, and thence to Newcastle, 
where he received protection, but was kept a prisoner for nine 
months. 

The king had hoped that the Scots would replace him upon 
his throne ; but the conditions they proposed were blindly 
rejected by him, and after much negotiation he was surren- 
dered to parliamentary commissioners upon the payment of 
four hundred thousand pounds. The transportation of this 
sum in silver northward from London required thirty-six carts 
guarded by an escort of infantry, and seventeen days' time for 
the journey. 



i649-J THE STUART FAMILY. 137 

33. For nearly two years the king was a prisoner of Parlia- 
ment, during which time all attempts at reconciliation with his 
enemies were fruitless. He was confined first at chariesa 
Holmby House, one of his own residences, not far prisoner, 
from Naseby ; then at Hampton Court, whence he escaped, 
and fled to the Isle of Wight, where he was kept in the castle, 
and from which he unsuccessfully attempted to escape ; next at 
Hurst Castle on the mainland ; and finally at Windsor, whence 
he was taken (Jan. 19, 1649) to St. James Palace in London. 

On the following day he was brought into Westminster Hall, 
to be tried on a charge of treason before a High Court of 
Justice composed of one hundred and thirty-five Trial and 
persons, of which John Bradshaw was president, execution. 
This court had been appointed, without the consent of the 
peers, by a minority of the House of Commons, after having 
expelled some of their colleagues, and being under the influence 
of the parliamentary army. Charles denied the authority of the 
court : but the trial proceeded ; and he was convicted, and 
received the sentence that " the Court, being satisfied that 
Charles Stuart is guilty of the crimes of which he has been 
charged, do adjudge him — as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and 
public enemy to the good people of the nation — to be put to 
death by severing his head from his body." 

34. Charles was no longer the man he had been before the 
civil war. Affliction had chastened his mind. He had sought 
and found relief in the consolations of religion, submission 
and his conduct during his trial exalted his char- and death, 
acter even in the estimation of his enemies. He forgave those 
who were the cause of his death ; and (Jan. 20) upon a scaf- 
fold in front of Whitehall Palace, he submitted to his fate with 
fortitude and composure. Having laid his head on the block, 
one of the masked executioners severed it from his body at a 
blow : the other, holding it up, exclaimed, " Behold the head 
of a traitor ! " while the sobs and lamentations of the specta- 
tors were mingled with the acclamations of the soldiery. 



138 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1649. 

35. Such was the end of Charles I., — an awful lesson to 
kings to watch the growth of public opinion, and to moderate 
Feelings of tn d r pretensions in conformity with the reasonable 
the nation. desires of their subjects. His execution, however, 
was contrary to the general feelings of the nation, and was the 
deed of comparatively a few men, actuated by ambition or the 
madness of the times. The event was new in the experience 
of Englishmen, for never before had they seen their sovereign 
die at the hands of the public executioner. Even of the com- 
missioners appointed to sit in judgment on him, only about 
half could be induced to attend his trial. But the manner of 
his death has tended to exalt his posthumous reputation : for his 
friends have styled him the " Royal Martyr ; " and even many 
of his enemies have been disposed to look forgivingly upon his 
misdeeds, which brought him to the scaffold. 

36. It was the misfortune of Charles to inherit despotic 
principles from his ancestors, to be educated in a servile and 
His char profligate court, and to be surrounded by wretched 
acter and counsellors. He was one of the last men to learn 
ability. - t j ie i m p rtant lesson, which princes in all ages have 
been slow to learn, that the influence of authority must ulti- 
mately bend to the influence of opinion. But his greatest 
defect, as well as the principal cause of his ruin, was the system 
of duplicity and insincerity upon which he acted in his public 
character. Such was his want of fidelity in his engagements, 
that the Parliament could never confide in his promises. But, 
weak and reprehensible as he was as a king, he was by no 
means destitute of abilities. He was possessed of considerable 
learning, and good talents as a speaker and writer, and in his 
private character was exemplary. In his manners he is repre- 
sented as cold, stiff, and formal ; and with respect to religion, 
"he was," says Bishop Burnet, "much inclined to a middle 
way between Protestants and Papists." 

37. The proceedings of Charles were at direct variance with 
*very principle of civil and religious liberty ; and, had they been 



1649.] THE STUART FAMILY. 139 

acquiesced in on the part of the people, England might now 
have been a despotism. Mr. Hume, the great Not a friend 
apologist for the Stuart family, acknowledges the of liberty, 
services of the Puritans, " by whom alone," according to him, 
" the precious spark of liberty had been kindled and was pre- 
served, and to whom the English owe the whole freedom of 
their constitution." 

38. The intention of those who first resisted the despotic and 
intolerant measures of the king and his court was doubtless 
upright and patriotic. Yet it must be acknowledged His oppo . 
that those who opposed the intolerance of the king nents. 

and of Laud, had themselves no consistent principles of religious 
liberty. In the progress of the contest, party spirit and fanati- 
cism were called into powerful operation ; and the leaders of 
the popular party in many cases acted on the principle that the 
end sanctifies the means, and appeared to think themselves 
absolved from all obligations of honor and honesty. Right and 
justice were outraged by those who professed to have drawn 
the sword in their defence. But such inconsistency is charac- 
teristic of revolutions. 

39. Charles left six children, of whom two, Charles and 
James, became kings of England ; and Mary, who married 
William II., Prince of Orange, became the mother 

of William III. of England. Henrietta Maria 

married Philip, Duke of Orleans, a brother of Louis XIV. of 

France, 

40. Vandyke, a Flemish artist, and probably the most cele- 
brated portrait-painter of modern times except Titian, resided 
in London during this reign, and was patronized by 

Afll SXS • 

Charles ; and it was through him that Charles ob- 
tained the celebrated Cartoons of Raphael, representing Scrip- 
ture scenes, and now in South Kensington Museum, London. 
Rubens, another eminent Flemish painter, came to the court of 
Charles as an ambassador from Spain. The ceilings of the 
Whitehall Palace banqueting-hall (still in existence) are deco- 
rated with pictures on canvas by him, painted abroad. 



140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1649 

41. In 1643 tne f amous Westminster Assembly of Divines, 
mostly Presbyterians, met in London, and continued its sessions 
Westminster about six years. This body prepared a directory 
Assembly. for public worship, a confession of faith, and two 
catechisms, all of which, with slight modifications, are still the 
standards of the Presbyterian Church. The Shorter Catechism 
was introduced into New England, and became a part of the 
New-England Primer, which was used for primary instruction in 
Puritan families. 

42. Roger Williams, a Puritan reformer, emigrated from 

England to America in 16 31, where he became 

Williams. 6 . , , ,'. 

conspicuous in the early history 01 Massachusetts, 
and the founder of the Colony of Rhode Island. 

43. In 1635 the postmaster-general was ordered to establish 

" a running post between London and Edinburgh 
(a distance of over two hundred miles) , to go night 
and day, and come back in six days; " and in 1644 a weekly 
conveyance of letters was ordered into all parts of the nation. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE COMMONWEALTH, OR PROTECTORATE. 

1649 to 1660, — 11 years. 

Oliver Cromwell. 

WITHIN a few hours after the execution of Charles I., 
a sergeant-at-arms appeared in the streets of London, 
and proclaimed that the House of Commons had 

No king. 

voted that whoever should proclaim the Prince of 
Wales, or any other one, king or chief magistrate of England, 
without the consent of Parliament, should be deemed a traitor. 
Not long afterwards the statue of the late king in the Exchange 
was thrown down ; and on its pedestal was inscribed, " Exit 
tyrannus, regum ultimus " ("The tyrant is gone, the last of the 
kings "). 

The Commons voted to abolish the office of King and the 
House of Lords as " unnecessary, burdensome, and dangerous 
to the liberty, safety, and public interests of the Monarchy 
people," and caused proclamation to be made that abolished, 
the supreme authority of the nation resided in the representa- 
tives of the people. A republican form of government was 
established, and a Council of State appointed as the Republican 
executive branch of the government. Of this coun- government, 
cil, John Bradshaw was president, and John Milton the poet, 
secretary. Only a few royalists (less than a half-dozen) were 
executed, and in matters of religion considerable toleration was 
allowed. 

2. After the execution of Laud, episcopacy had been abol- 

141 



142 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1649. 

ished, and Presbyterianism substituted in its stead. But the 
The army in Presbyterian interest soon began to decline, and 
power. the Independents gained the ascendency ; and the 

power which the Parliament had wrested from the king was at 
length, by the management of Cromwell, transferred to the 
army. Before the trial of Charles, measures had been taken to 
exclude the Presbyterians from Parliament ; and that part of 
the House which remained, distinguished by the ridiculous 
name of the " Rump," was composed of Independents, under 
the influence of Cromwell. In this manner the Presbyterians, 
who had overturned the church and the throne, fell victims to 
the military power which they had used as the instrument for 
accomplishing their designs. 

3. The attention of the new government was early called to 
the condition of Ireland, where civil war was imminent or was 
Condition of already prevailing. The greater part of the peo- 
ireiand. pi e we re royalists, and generally Catholics also. 
Through the Marquis of Ormond, their leader, they had invited 
the late king's son, Prince Charles, — then on the Continent, — 
to come to Ireland, and be proclaimed king. They were in 
possession of all the principal places of the island, except 
Dublin and Derry ; and Prince Rupert was hovering about St. 
George's Channel with a large fleet. 

4. In this emergency Cromwell was appointed general-in- 
chief and lord-lieutenant ; and with his son-in-law Ireton, and 
Cromwell's nme thousand troops, he set out for Ireland. While 
campaign. h e tarried briefly at Bristol, a portion of the army 
preceded him, and relieved Dublin, which had been besieged 
by Ormond. Cromwell's arrival caused much rejoicing among 
his friends and adherents, who were in constant fear and alarm, 
owing to the disturbed state of the country, which, unhappily, 
had existed for several years. Strong party feeling had existed 
on all sides since the insurrection in Ulster in 1641, which 
grew out of unsuccessful attempts to redress civil wrongs, and 
to remove religious disabilities. 



1650.] THE COMMONWEALTH, OR PROTECTORATE. 143 

Cromwell's first movement was against Drogheda, which had 
a garrison of two thousand men ; and, when a surrender was 
refused, they were summarily put to the sword. pi aC es 
Cromwell himself reported that only a few escaped, taken. 
Dundalk and Wexford shared a similar fate ; and in this way 
for ten months he went through the land. Where the terror of 
his name had not gone before him to induce submission, the 
sword did its quick work with terrible effect. Those who thought 
such warfare revengeful were told by Cromwell that the hand 
of Providence was in this visitation, and that "this present 
bitterness would save the effusion of blood " in future. 

During this campaign he destroyed or greatly damaged many 
of the fine old castles whose ivy-covered ruins form 

. Castles. 

such a picturesque feature in the scenery of Ireland. 

The commander-in-chief was soon recalled to repress hostile 

movements in Scotland. 

5. The Parliament of Scotland took no part in the trial of the 
late king, but soon afterwards began to negotiate with his son 
to be proclaimed as Charles II. Montrose, the Prince 
stanch royalist, and hater of the Covenanters, had Charles and 

.left Scotland for the Continent after the king was * e cots ' 
taken prisoner; and now young Charles, in the Netherlands, 
commissioned him to raise troops, and re-enter Scotland. He 
did so, but was soon taken prisoner, and executed. Charles 
entered Scotland, after being compelled to sigh the Covenant, 
and, when going into Aberdeen, saw the limbs of Montrose 
fastened upon the gateway above his head. 

6. Cromwell was appointed captain-general of the army for 
the campaign in Scotland, and immediately marched towards 
Edinburgh. In September, 1650, he was at Dunbar, Cromwell< 
with twelve thousand men, surrounded by twenty- Dunbar, 
seven thousand Scots under Lesley, who attacked him vig- 
orously; but Cromwell's troops fought with such skill and 
desperation, that the Scots were completely routed, leaving 
three thousand dead upon the field, and losing ten thousand 



144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1651. 

prisoners, some of whom were sent to New England, and sold 
into penal servitude. Cromwell entered Edinburgh, and laid 
siege to the great Castle, which surrendered after a stout resist- 
ance of three months. 

7. Charles was crowned at Scone in January, 165 1, and, 
after a varied campaign of several months, marched southward 

into England with an army of eleven thousand men. 

Cromwell followed with ten thousand troops, and 
overtook him at Worcester, on the anniversary of the battle 
of Dunbar, gave him battle, and completely routed him. 
Charles's army were nearly all killed or taken prisoners. Crom- 
well called this victory his crowning mercy, and returned in 
triumph to London. Gen. Monk was afterwards made com- 
mander of the forces in Scotland, and brought the country 
into a state of subjection to the government. 

8. Young Charles escaped with difficulty. He assumed the 
disguise of a peasant, journeying in the least-frequented roads, 
Charles 11. travelling only in the night, and passing the day in 
a fugitive. obscure cottages, where he was unknown, and where 
his food was generally a little coarse bread and milk. On one 
occasion he sought safety by concealing himself for a day in 
the top of a large oak. In that precarious situation he saw 
and heard his pursuers, as they passed by, talking of him, 
and expressing a wish that they might discover the place of 
his concealment. After two months of romantic adventure, 
he found an opportunity of escaping to France. 

9. The republican Parliament passed (165 1) the famous 
Navigation Act, which, by prohibiting the importation of all 
war with foreign merchandise, except in English bottoms or 
Holland. j n those of the country producing the commodities, 
tended greatly to promote the naval superiority of Great Britain. 
This act, the object of which was to wrest the carrying- trade 
of Europe from the Dutch, was the cause of a war between 
England and Holland, which was declared by Parliament in 
1652. The contest was carried on by sea, by Admirals Van 



1652.] THE COMMONWEALTH, OR PROTECTORATE. 145 

Tromp, De Ruyter, and De Witt, on the part of the Dutch, and 
by Admiral Blake of the English fleet. Van Tromp, with a 
fleet of eighty vessels and ten fire-ships, attacked N ava i 
the English fleet of thirty-seven ships in the Downs battles, 
(in November), and gained a victory after a day of hard fight- 
ing. Van Tromp was so elated with his success, that he sailed 
through the Channel and into the Thames, carrying a broom 
at masthead ; thus indicating his determination to sweep the 
English fleet from the ocean. 

During the winter another engagement took place, lasting 
three days, in which Blake was victorious, losing only one ves- 
sel, and sinking eleven of the enemy's ships. The war was 
finally terminated triumphantly for the English, by a hard- 
fought battle, in July, in which Van Tromp was killed, and thirty 
of his ships destroyed, while the English lost but two vessels. 

10. The Parliament, which had been in session twelve years, 
known by the name of the " Long Parliament," had lost the 
confidence of the people. It had been subservient „ 

r L Cromwell 

to the views of Cromwell ; but, having at length and Long 
become jealous of him, it formed the design of Parhament - 
reducing the army, intending by that means to diminish his 
power. Cromwell perceiving their object, and being secure of 
the attachment of the army, resolved on seizing the sovereign 
power. While sitting in a council of officers, on being informed 
of an unfavorable reply of Parliament to a petition which they 
had presented, he rose up on a sudden with an appearance of 
fury, and, turning to Major-Gen. Vernon, cried out that he was 
compelled to do a thing which made the very hairs of his head 
stand on end. Taking with him three hundred soldiers to the 
door, he speedily entered the House, with marks of violent 
indignation in his countenance ; and, after listening a while to 
the debates, he started up, and began to load the Parliament 
with reproaches. Then, stamping upon the floor, he gave a 
signal for his soldiers to enter, and, addressing himself to the 
members, " For shame ! " said he. ' Get you gone I Give 



146 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1653 

place to honester men ! I tell you you are no longer a parlia- 
ment : the Lord has done with you ! " Having turned out all 
the members, he ordered the doors to be locked, and, putting 
the keys in his pocket, returned to the palace. 

11. In this manner Cromwell seized the reins of government. 
But he was willing to give his subjects a parliament, not, indeed, 
Cromwell, elected in the usual form, but modelled on principles 
Protector. entirely new. The ministers took the sense of the 
" Congregational churches " in the several counties, and returns 
were made containing the names of such persons as were 
deemed qualitied for this high trust. Out of these the council, 
in the presence of Cromwell, selected a hundred and sixty- 
three representatives, to each of whom a writ of summons was 
sent, requiring his attendance ; and on the appointed day a 
hundred and twenty of them presented themselves in the 
council-chamber at Whitehall. This body, composed of men 
who were deeply imbued with the fanaticism of the times, is 
known by the name of the "Little Parliament;" and is also 
often called " Barebone's Parliament," from a leading member, 
a leather-dresser, whose name, given according to the taste of 
the age, was Praise-God Barebone. The Little Parliament 
assembled on the 4th of July, 1653, and was dissolved in the 
following December. At the time of its dissolution a new con- 
stitution was published, and Cromwell assumed the title and 
office of Protector, having now obtained the great object of his 
ambition, — the station and authority, though not the title, of 
king. He was assisted by a council of twenty-one members ; 
and, instead of the title of Majesty, he received that of High- 
ness. He afterwards aspired to the title of king, which was at 
length tendered to him, yet under such circumstances of oppo- 
sition and danger that he thought proper to decline it. 

12. The government which he had usurped he administered 
with unrivalled energy and ability, and he was the most able 
and powerful potentate of his time in Europe. Abroad, his 
fleets and armies were victorious \ and the Island of Jamaica^ 



1658.] THE COMMON WE A L TH, OR PRO TEC TOR A TE. 147 

and the strong town of Dunkirk in the north-eastern part of 
France, were taken from the Spaniards. At home he defeated 
and punished the conspiracies formed against him, Character of 
and caused justice to be ably and impartially admin- his admin- 
istered by upright and learned judges. He also lstratlon - 
made himself to be respected and dreaded by the neighbor- 
ing nations, and his friendship to be sought by every foreign 
power ; and among all foreign nations the rights of the citizens 
of the Commonwealth were as properly respected as under the 
reign of any other sovereign. The splendor of Cromwell's 
character and exploits rendered the short period of the pro- 
tectorate one of the most brilliant in English history. 

But, notwithstanding all his efforts, his enemies were numer- 
ous among both the royalists and republicans. His domestic 
afflictions were also many and severe. A son was Affliction 
killed in battle ; and a favorite married daughter and death - 
died of a lingering disease ; and another married daughter was 
so extreme in her ideas of liberty, that she did not wish to see 
any one person at the head of the government, not even her 
own father. He passed the last part of his life in constant fear 
of assassination, wore armor under his clothes, kept pistols in 
his pocket, and never slept more than three nights in the same 
chamber. At last, after having usurped the government nine 
years, he died of a tertian ague (1658), in the sixtieth year 
of his age. 

13. Cromwell was regarded by many as one of the most 
extraordinary men that England has produced ; and, till the 
rise of Bonaparte, his name was without a parallel His abilities 
in modern Europe. Men were accustomed to look and career - 
with awe upon the individual, who, without the aid of birth, 
wealth, or connections, was able by the force of his talents to 
seize the government of three powerful kingdoms, and impose 
the yoke of servitude upon the necks of the very men who had 
fought in his company, to emancipate themselves from the 
arbitrary sway of their hereditary sovereign. 



148 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1658. 

He owed his elevation to his influence with the army ; and 
the character of that body and that of their leader were, in a 
great measure, mutually formed by each other. The officers 
and soldiers made high professions of religion. Religious exer- 
cises were of as frequent occurrence as those of military duty. 
The generals opened their proceedings in council by prayer ; 
and among them none were more zealous than Cromwell, and 
he was regarded by them as the favorite of Heaven. 

The name of Cromwell has been subjected to the almost 
universal charge of unbounded ambition and deep hypocrisy. 
His place But the lapse of time has lessened somewhat the 
in history. severity of judgment passed upon his acts and mo- 
tives, and many of his admirers regard the principles for which 
he contended as the foundation of constitutional liberty as 
enjoyed in England at the present day. 

14. Cromwell, in private life, in the several relations of a 
husband, a father, a neighbor, and a friend, was exemplary. 
Private From his early days to the close of his career, reli- 
character. gion, or religious enthusiasm, formed a distinguished 
trait in his character ; and it frequently manifested itself in the 
senate and in the field, and also in his domestic retirement. 
Some writers have maintained that he was a dissembler in reli- 
gion as well as in politics ; " but this supposition," says Dr. 
Lingard, " is contradicted by the uniform tenor of his life." 

15. Richard Cromwell, after the death of his father, was 
proclaimed protector. But the contrast between the father and 
Richard son was vei T great. Richard was neither a states- 
Cromweii. man nor a soldier, had no experience in public 
business, and possessed feeble talents and little ambition ; and 
after a few months he resigned the office, and retired to private 
life. A state of anarchy succeeded, when Gen. Monk, the mil- 
itary commander in Scotland marched his army into England, 
and crushed the contending factions. A parliament was assem- 
bled ; and on the 29th of May, 1660, Charles II., now thirty 
ears of age, was restored to the throne of his father. This 
event is generally called the " Restoration." 



CHAPTER IV. 
THE STUART FAMILY (PART II). 

FROM THE END OF THE COMMONWEALTH TO THE HOUSE OF 

BRUNSWICK. 

1660 to 1714, — 54 years. 
Charles II. James II. William and Mary. Anne. 

THE nation, indiscreetly trusting to the general professions 
of Charles II., suffered him to assume the crown 
(1660) without imposing on him any conditions ; Accession of 
and his reign and that of James II. exhibit a repe- Charles IL 
tition of struggles similar to those which had occurred under 
the first two princes of the house of Stuart. The first impres- 
sions with regard to the new king were favorable. His man- 
ners were easy and familiar, but his habits were indolent ; 
and experience soon proved his character to be profligate and 
worthless. 

2. The change in the public sentiment observable at this 
period is not a little remarkable. The same people who but 
a few years before were so jealous of liberty, and Public senti . 
exclaimed so loudly against monarchical govern- ment 
ment, are now exhibited as soliciting with eagerness chan ^ ed - 
the return of arbitrary power. A number of the regicides 
were condemned and executed ; and the bodies of Cromwell, 
Ireton his son-in-law, Bradshaw, and the naval hero Blake, were 
dug up from their graves, and hanged upon the gallows, to 
gratify the vindictive spirit of the' king and the cavaliers. 
Measures were soon taken to restore the high prerogatives of 
the crown, which had been set aside by the Long Parliament, 

.»49 



150 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1662. 

and an act of Uniformity in religion was passed (1662), by 
which about two thousand nonconforming ministers were de- 
prived of their livings ; and another attempt was made to 
establish episcopacy in Scotland. 

3. The prodigality of Charles kept him always in want. 
Dunkirk, which had been acquired by Cromwell, he sold to the 
Charles's French for four hundred thousand pounds, which 
prodigality. h e soon squandered upon his pleasures. He en- 
tered into hostilities with the Dutch, which were carried on for 
some time with spirit. While this war was raging, London 
Fire and was visited (1665) by a terrible plague, which 
plague. carried off about ninety thousand inhabitants ; and 
that was followed the next year by a fire, by which seventy-nine 
churches and many other public buildings, and more than 
thirteen thousand houses (comprising about two-thirds of the 
metropolis), were reduced to ashes. 

4. In consequence of the unsuccessful issue of the wai 
(which was terminated by the peace of Breda, 1667), and of 
Dissatisfac- the sale of Dunkirk, the government became un- 
tion. popular ; and the celebrated Lord Clarendon, on 
whom the odium was chiefly cast, was banished, and passed the 
remainder of his life in France. After the fall of Clarendon 
the government became more unprincipled ; and the five minis- 
ters by whom it was conducted have been stigmatized by the 
term of "Cabal," so called from the initial letters of their 
names, Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, Lauderdale. 

5. The Duke of York (afterwards James II.), who had now 
the chief influence at court, was an avowed Catholic : Charles, 
Duke of so far as he had any sense of religion, was a con- 
York - cealed one, and had the baseness to receive from 
Louis XIV. of France a pension of two hundred thousand 
pounds a year for the purpose of establishing the Catholic 
religion and despotic power in England. A general consterna- 
tion for the safety of the Protestant religion and of public 
liberty prevailed ; and the latter part of Charles's reign exhibits 



1 685.] THE STUAR T FA MIL Y. 151 

an uninterrupted series of attacks upon the lives, liberty, and 
property of his subjects, and a disgusting scene of party in- 
trigues, and of plots and conspiracies. Yet it was Habeas 
at this period that Parliament passed the Habeas Cor P us - 
Corpus Act, — a most important security to the subject against 
personal oppression. 

6. A pretended Popish plot to murder the king, disclosed by 
the infamous Titus Oates, occasioned an unjust execution of 
Lord Stafford and some other Catholics. Another 

Plots. 

pretended conspiracy in favor of reform was called 
the " Rye-House Plot," from the place where the conspirators 
held their meetings, in which those eminent patriots Lord Rus- 
sell and Algernon Sidney were accused of being concerned, 
and, on testimony supposed to be perjured, were condemned 
and beheaded. 

7. The character of the court, as well as that of the king, 
was notorious for its profligacy ; and it had a most unhappy- 
influence upon the nation. A general dissoluteness character of 
of manners characterized the reign. All appear- court and 
ance of devotion, and all regularity of morals, were na lon ' 
regarded as puritanical, and exploded as unfashionable. Charles 
II. was a man of wit and good-humor, and possessed such 
talents as enabled him to shine among his gay and profligate 
companions ; but he had no qualities as a man or a king that 
entitle him to the respect or gratitude of posterity. 

8. Among the distinguished men who flourished in the reign 
of Charles were John Milton, the author of "Paradise Lost;" 
Sir Matthew Hale, the incorruptible chief justice ; Distin- 
John Bunyan, the author of " Pilgrim's Progress ; " gashed men. 
Sir Christopher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's Cathedral in 
London ; the poet Dryden ; John Locke, the philosopher and 
metaphysician ; and Sir Isaac Newton, the discoverer of the law 
of gravitation. Halley the astronomer made the first success- 
ful prediction of the return of a comet (the one bearing his 
name) in 168 1. 



152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1685. 

The astronomical observatory at Greenwich was founded by 
Charles II. ; also the Royal Society for the Promotion of Sci- 
ence, — an association which soon included among its members 
many scholars who became eminent in the various departments 
of learning. 

9. James II., who succeeded (1685) his brother Charles, 
was inferior to him in talents, but much more devoted to busi- 
Character of ness. He made good promises to his council ; but, 
james 11. on assuming the government, he soon expressed 
his contempt for the authority of Parliament, and his determi- 
nation to reign without restraint. Like his predecessors of the 
Stuart family, he was arbitrary and impolitic ; and his short 
and inglorious reign was mainly employed in attempts to re- 
establish the Catholic religion in the kingdom, and to assert 
and maintain the supreme prerogative of the crown. He was 
fearless in the prosecution of his plans ; and, when Parliament 
refused him supplies, it was at once prorogued. 

10. The Duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., 
who during the preceding reign had defeated the Scottish 
Monmouth Covenanters at Bothwell Bridge, having now excited 
and Jeffreys. a rebellion with a view to seize the crown, was de- 
feated, taken prisoner, and beheaded. The most inhuman 
rigor was exercised against those who favored him. The atro- 
cious Chief Justice Jeffreys, the most noted as an unscrupulous 
and profligate judge in English history, exercised the most un- 
relenting cruelty. He gloried in his barbarity, and boasted that 
he had hanged more men than any other judge since the time 
of William the Conqueror ; and his bloody career was styled 
by James, with unfeeling jocularity, "Jeffreys' campaign." 

11. The efforts of James in favor of the Catholic religion 
were, for a considerable time, attended with success ; but hav- 
Revoiution ing caused seven bishops to be committed to the 
of 1688. Tower for refusing to read a proclamation suspend- 
ing the Test Act, which required all officers to conform to 
the Established Church, the passive spirit of the nation disap- 



1688.] THE STUART FAMILY. . 1 53 

peared, and a general indignation was roused. William, Prince 
of Orange, who had married Mary, the eldest daughter of James, 
was invited over, and landed at Torbay with an army, in order 
to assume the government. The principal nobility and officers 
soon joined his standard ; and James, being deserted by the 
people, and even by his own children, escaped to France, where 
he passed the remainder of his life. A convention-parliament 
declared the king's flight an abdication, and settled the crown 
upon William III. and Mary. This event is styled by- 
British writers the glorious Revolution of 1688. 

12. The English navy became quite large and efficient 
during the reign of James, who, before he came to 

the throne, had gained some distinction as a naval 
commander. When Duke of York, he first invented a system of 
marine signals. The national anthem, " God save the King," 
was composed and first sung in the reign of this sovereign. 

13. The British Constitution now became, in many important 
points, fixed and determined. The Protestant succession was 
secured, religious toleration granted, and Presby- Principles 
terianism re-established in Scotland. A declaration established, 
was made, fixing the rights of the subject and the prerogative 
of the king. Some of the most important articles are the 
following : 1 . The king cannot suspend the laws or their execu- 
tion. 2. He cannot levy money without the consent of Parlia- 
ment. 3. The subjects have a right to petition the crown. 4. A 
standing army cannot be kept in time of peace, but with the 
consent of Parliament. 5 . Elections and parliamentary debates 
must be free, and parliaments must be frequently assembled. 

Archbishop Sancroft, seven other bishops, and a considerable 
number of the clergy, who held the doctrines of passive obe- 
dience and the divine right of kings and bishops, looking upon 
James as still their lawful king, refused to take the oath of alle- 
giance to William, and were deprived of their stations. From 
this circumstance they were styled Non-jurors, High-Church- 
men, and Jacobites. 



154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1697 

14. Ireland still adhered to James, and the Parliament of that 
country declared William a usurper. Being assisted by Louis 
opposition XIV. of France, James landed with some French 
to William, forces in Ireland, where he was joined by a large 
army ; but he was defeated by William at the River Boyne, 
and the country submitted to the new king. A large fleet 
which Louis XIV. had prepared in favor of James was destroyed 
by Admiral Russell off Cape la Hogue ; and by the Peace of 
Ryswick, which followed (1697), the title of William to the 
crown was acknowledged. 

15. William was a man of feeble constitution, but of distin- 
guished talents, especially in war, to which his taste strongly in- 
wniiam's clined him ; and he was esteemed one of the great- 
character. est commanders of his age. He was rather fitted 
to command respect than affection, as he excelled more in the 
severer than in the milder virtues, being wholly devoted to 
business, and his manners being cold, grave, and reserved. He 
was favorable to the freedom of the press, and to constitutiona) 
liberty. But he was less popular with his subjects than some 
other sovereigns of far less merit. Mary, his queen, and part- 
ner of the throne, who died seven years before him, was a 
woman distinguished for her virtues. 

16. The Bank of England was founded during William's 
Bank of reign ; and the national debt had its origin about 
England. j-j^ same time, occasioned by borrowing money to 
meet the great expense of foreign wars. 

17. The material progress of the country during the seven- 
teenth century was considerable, and the condition of the 
Progress of lower classes was improved. This was particularly 
the century. true a f ter fa Q p er iod of the Commonwealth. A dis- 
tinguished English merchant, who was also chairman of the 
East-India Company, wrote, near the close of that century, 
"that in 1688 there were on the 'Change more men worth ten 
thousand pounds than there were in 1650 worth a thousand; 
that gentlewomen, in those earlier times, thought themselves 



1 7 02.] THE STUART FAMILY. 155 

well clothed in a serge gown which a chambermaid would, in 
1688, be ashamed to be seen in; and that, besides the great 
increase of rich clothes, plate, jewels, and household furniture, 
coaches were in that time augmented a hundred-fold." 

Trade and commerce flourished, especially with the East and 
with the American Colonies. The cotton manufacture was com- 
menced at Manchester ; and many French Huguenots, driven 
from France, came into England, and set up their business of 
silk-weaving. Roads and turnpikes were improved, stage-coaches 
introduced ; and the mail was carried in bags on horseback, the 
first post-office being established in 1635. Tea, coffee, tobacco, 
and spices were introduced ; also calico from Calicut in India. 

In 1670 the Duke of Buckingham introduced into England 
the manufacture of plate glass and crystal by importing work- 
men from Venice. 

A few newspapers were irregularly published during the 
middle and latter part of the century ; but they were frequently 
interfered with by the rigid censorship of the press. 

Many Dutch painters of distinction were in England during 
this period, and the fine arts received considerable attention. 
At the close of the century the population of England was 
somewhat more than seven millions, and that of London was 
more than half" a million. Its streets, as described by the 
writers of the time, were narrow, unpaved, and dirty, with no 
lights except the lantern or torch of the nightly traveller. 

18. On the death of William the crown devolved upon Anne 
(1702), the second daughter of James II., who was 

, Queen Anne. 

married to George, Prince of Denmark. In the 
first year of this reign, Great Britain, Germany, and Holland, 
in alliance with each other, declared war against France, called 
the war of the Spanish succession. The Duke of War of 
Marlborough, one of the greatest commanders of Spanish 
modern times, was appointed generalissimo of the 
allied army ; and the imperial general was the celebrated Prince 
Eugene. In this great contest the allies had greatly the advan- 
tage, effectually checked the ambition and encroachments o« 



156 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [17^4. 

Louis XIV., and gained the splendid victories of Blenheim 
(1704), Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet 
(1709). Gibraltar was captured by Admiral Rooke in 1704, 
and has ever since remained in the possession of the English. 
The war was terminated by the Peace of Utrecht in 1713. 

19. An important event of this reign was the constitutional 
Union of union between England and Scotland (1 706), which 
England and put an end to the contests which had harassed 

both countries, and included them under one com- 
mon title of Great Britain. Scotland was immediately repre- 
sented in Parliament by sixteen peers in the House of Lords, 
and forty-five members in the House of Commons. This union 
proved especially beneficial to Scotland, being followed by a 
rapid development of her business-interests, and by a healthful 
improvement in the condition of the people and society. 

20. Queen Anne was respected for her virtues, and she has 
been honored by the appellation of "Good Queen Anne;" 
Anne's, though, according to Lord Mahon, "she was a 
character. ~ /er y wea k woman, always blindly guided by some 
female favorite." Her principal advisers were the Duchess of 
Marlborough and her husband, — the duke above mentioned. 

The duke was not only an able commander, but a 

Marlborough. 

successful diplomatist, and one of the most accom- 
plished gentlemen of his age ; but at heart he was treacherous, 
mean, and exceedingly avaricious. After a brilliant career he 
and the duchess lost favor with the queen, and retired to the 
Netherlands. 

Anne's reign was distinguished not only for military achieve- 
ments, but also for eminent attainments in philosophy and 
literature, and is sometimes styled the Augustan age of England, 
during which many distinguished writers flourished, including 
Addison, Swift, Pope, Steele, and Bolingbroke. 

The queen died suddenly, in August, 1714. She had eighteen 
children, all of whom died young, one only reaching the age of 
eleven years. 



I7H-] THE STUART FAMILY. I5V 

21. The party names of Whigs and Tories, which are some- 
times used to designate parties in England, first became com- 
mon in the reign of Charles II. The Whigs were 

r r m Party names. 

advocates for the rights of the people : the Tories 
favored those of the crown. The accession of William and 
Mary was advocated chiefly by the Whigs. During the reign 
of Anne, parties ran high : the nation was thrown into a ferment 
by the preaching of Dr. Sacheverell, who inculcated the Tory 
principle of passive obedience ; and towards the close of the 
reign the Tories supplanted the Whigs in the queen's favor, and 
came into power. 

22. The sovereigns of the Stuart family were not friends of 
popular liberty. While they had not that vindic- The stuart 
tiveness towards opponents and offenders so often famil y- 
exhibited by the Tudors, they were firm believers in the divine 
right of kings. In their judgment, laws were for subjects, and 
not for sovereigns; and their "high prerogative" seemed to 
them a sufficient justification for whatever policy was dictated 
by their pleasure, interest, or caprice. It was their misfortune, 
perhaps, to live in an age when .parliaments had come to mani- 
fest considerable boldness and independence, and when the 
people were noticeably clamoring for freedom of opinion and 
popular rights. Hence factions and convulsions were the rule 
rather than the exception. Some of this family had the welfare 
of the people at heart, and contributed in no small measure to 
the general prosperity of the realm ; but they lacked that sym- 
pathy with the people, and that instinct for progress, necessary 
for their position. The age of the Stuarts was one in which the 
opportunity of kings was imperfectly understood, and sinfully 
abused and neglected. 



158 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

A. — Topics for Outside Reading. 
Henry VII. Revival of learning. 

Moberly, ch. VII. Gardiner, II., 367. Green, 303. 
Colby, No. 52. 

Henry VIII. 1. Cardinal Wolsey. 

Gardiner, II., ch. XXIV. Creighton, " Wolsey. " 
(English Statesmen Series.) Guest, 393-6. Kendall, No. 
44, or Colby, No. 53. 

2. Henry's breach with the Church. 

Gardiner, II., ch. XXV. On Thomas Cromwell, see 
Green, 332-48. Kendall, No. 46. On Sir Thomas More, 
Gardiner, II., 387, 394, and " Historical Biographies," 79. 
Creighton, " Stories," XXX. Kendall, Nos. 45, 47. 

3. The Crown and Parliament. 

Montague, 92-104. 

Edward VI. Progress of the Reformation. 

Gardiner, II., 413-15, 418-20. Kendall, No. 49. 
Colby, No. 58. 

Elizabeth. 1. Policy in Church and State. 

Gardiner, II., 428-32. Creighton, "Age of Elizabeth," 
43~5°> 123-32. Green, 370-77. 

2. Mary, Queen of Scots. 

Gardiner, II., 432-41, 457. Creighton, " Age of Eliza- 
beth," 62-79, 169-71. Kendall. Nos. 53,55,58. Colby, 
No. 63. 

2f. The Spanish Armada. 

Gardiner, II., 458-64. Creighton, "Age of Eliza- 
beth," 174-80. Green, 417-20. Kendall, No. 59. Coman 
and Bates, 288. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 159 

James I. 1. James and the religious question. 

Kendall, No. 69 (Hampton Court conference). Gardi- 
ner, " Puritan Revolution," 13-16. Colby, No. 69. Creigh- 
* ton, " Stories," XXXVII. 

2. James's quarrel with Parliament. 

Green, 477-82. Kendall, No. 70. 

Charles I. 1. Charles and his first three parliaments. 

Gardiner, II., 502-13. Gardiner, " Puritan Revolu- 
tion," 48-69. Montague, 118. Creighton, "Stories," 
XXXIX. (Sir John Eliot.) For the Petition of Right, see 
" Old South Leaflet," No. 23. For the closing scene of the 
third parliament, Kendall, No. 72. On the Puritan exodus 
to New England, Kendall, No. 73. 

2. The period of arbitrary government, 1629-40. 

On " Land and the Church," Gardiner, II., 516-21. " Pu- 
ritan Revolution," 85-90, 94-7. 

" Wentworth in Ireland," Gardiner, II., 527-8. 

" Puritan Revolution," 97-102. Montague, 120-4. 

"Ship money," Gardiner, II., 521-4. "Puritan Revolu- 
tion," 90-4. 

3. The Long Parliament, to the Civil War, 1 640-1 642. 

"Condemnation of Strafford," Kendall, Nos. 76, 77. 
Colby, No. 71. Gardiner, "Puritan Revolution," 111-13. 

" Reforming Work of Parliament," Gardiner, II., 531. 
Montague, 125-7. " Puritan Revolution," 114. 

" Formation of Parliamentary Parties," Gardiner, II., 
532-3. " Puritan Revolution," 1 15-18. Macaulay, I. Mon- 
tague, 127-9. 

" Irish Rebellion and the Grand Remonstrance," Gardi- 
ner, II., 533-4. " Puritan Revolution," 119-22. Macaulay, 
I. " Old South Leaflet," No. 24 (the Grand Remonstrance). 
Kendall, No. 78 (attempt on the five members). 

4. ' The Civil War, 1642-49. 

On the rise of the Independents, see Gardiner. II., 543 
" Puritan Revolution," 131-36. On reorganization of the 



160 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

army by Cromwell and the Independents, the Self-denying 
Ordinance and the New Model, Gardiner, II., 544-6. " Pu- 
ritan Revolution," 137-42. Gardiner, " Historical Biogra- 
phies," Cromwell. Kendall, No. 80. Creighton, " Sto- 
ries," XL. For the quarrel between the Presbyterians in Par- 
liament and the Army, Gardiner, II., 553-57. " Puritan 
Revolution," 144-52. Trial and execution of the King, Gar- 
diner, II., 557-60. " Puritan Revolution," 153. Kendall, 
No. 82. Read also Coman and Bates, 321. 

Commonwealth and Protectorate. 

1. Cromwell in Ireland and Scotland. 

Gardiner, II., 562-64. "Puritan Revolution," 156-9 
Green, 574-8. Creighton, "Stories," XLI. 

2. Cromwell's foreign policy. 

Gardiner, II., 564, 571-2. " Puritan Revolution," 174-5, 
177, 181. Colby, No. 76. Kendall, Nos. 86, 87, 88. 

3. Cromwell's home government. 

Gardiner, II., 565-71, 572-3. "Puritan Revolution," 
159-79. Green, 580-91, 593-6. Colby, No. 75. Ken- 
dall, No. 85. Read Macaulay, I., for an interesting char- 
acterization of Puritan rule. Coman and Bates, 338. 

4. Restoration of Charles II. 

Gardiner, "Puritan Revolution," 187-9. Colby, No. 
77. Kendall, No. 90. 

Charles II. 1. The great plague and the London fire. 
Kendall, No. 93. Colby, No. 78. 

2. Foreign Relations : Dutch wars, intrigues with France 

(secret treaty of Dover, declaration of indulgence). 

Gardiner, II., 589-93, 599-602, 604-6, 611-15. Ken- 
dall, No. 94. Green, 633-40. 

3. English opposition to Charles's policy : test act, exclusion 

bill, plots. 

Gardiner, II., 606-8, 615-19, 620-7. Green, 649-52. 
Montague, 140-4. Creighton, " Stories," XLII. Ken- 
dall, Nos. 96, 97. Hale, " Fall of the Stuarts," 18-25, 55-63. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 161 

James II. 1. Monmouth's rebellion. 

Gardiner, II., 637-8. "Fall of the Stuarts," 89-97. 
Colby, No. 81. On Jeffries and the Bloody Assizes, Ma- 
caulay I. 

2. Attempts at absolute government : the dispensing power ; 

the declaration of indulgence ; trial of the seven 

bishops. 

Gardiner, II., 638-43. " Fall of the Stuarts," 102-8, 119- 
22. Kendall, Nos. 98, 99. Creighton, " Stories," XLIII. 
Macaulay, II. Coman and Bates, 345. 

3. The coming of William, Prince of Orange. 

Gardiner, II., 643-8. "Historical Biographies," 198. 
"Fall of the Stuarts," 123-42. Kendall, No. ioi. Ma- 
caulay, II. (character of William) ; II. (the convention par- 
liament) ; II., or Gardiner, II., 647 (character of the revo- 
lution). 

William and Mary. 1. Constitutional gains from the 
revolution of 1688 : Bill of Rights, Toleration Act, 
Mutiny Act, Liberty of the Press. 

Montague, 146-52. Gardiner, III., 649-52, 663. For 
Bill of Rights, see " Old South Leaflet," No. 19, or Fiske, 
" Civil Government," Appendix D. 

2. Establishment of William's power in Ireland and Scot- 

land. 

Gardiner, III., 652-7. Kendall, No. 102. Colby, 
No. 84. Creighton, " Stories," XLIV. (Londonderry) 
XLV. (Glencoe). 

3. The Act of Settlement. 

Montague, 153-56. Gardiner, III., 672-4. 

Anne. 1. War of the Spanish succession. 

Gardiner, III., 667-9, 671, 675, 678-85, 696-8. Colby 
No. 86. Kendall, No. 115. Coman and Bates, 353. 

2. Union of Scotland and England. 

Gardiner, III., 685. Montague, 158-61. Colby, 87. 



1 62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

B. — Topics for Special Reports. 

Henry VII. Events and discoveries greatly changing 
economic and political life : invention of gunpowder, 
compass, printing ; fall of Constantinople, discovery of 
America, circumnavigation of Africa. 

Henry VIII. 1. Martin Luther. 2. John Calvin. 

3. Suppression of the monasteries. 

Moberly, " Early Tudors," 188-93. Gardiner, II., 394, 
396-7. Colby, No. 147. 

4. What is a bill of attainder ? 

Elizabeth. 1. The evils of sheep-raising. 

Kendall, Nos. 62-4. 

2. The reformation in Scotland, and John Knox. 

James I. 1. The King James version of the Bible. 
2. Bates' case and the impositions. 3. Career and 
character of Francis Bacon. 

Charles I. 1. The case of the five knights. 
Gardiner, II., 506. 

2. Compare the political views of Eliot and Wentworth. 

Gardiner, II., 508. 

3. Define Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Independent, forms of 

church government in the time of Charles. 

4. Cromwell's Ironsides. 5. The part taken by the Scots 

in the Civil War. 6. Pride's purge. 

Cromwell. 1. Of what benefit to England was Crom- 
well's rule ? 2. Why was his government unpopular ? 
On what was his power based ? 

Charles II. 1. Who were the Dissenters ? Are there 
any in England to-day ? 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 163 

2. Who were the members of the Triple Alliance, and what 

was its object ? 

Gardiner, II. , 599. 

3. Charles's attack on the city charters. 

Gardiner, II., 622-5. 

4. The coffee-houses. 

Gardiner, II. Colby. 

James II. 1. The case of Sir Edward Hales. 

2. The expulsion of the Fellows of Magdalen College. 

3. Compare the Stuarts with the Tudors. Let three points 

be : personal character, relations with parliament, repu- 
tation of England abroad. 

William and Mary. 1. Compare the Petition of Right, 
Bill of Rights, Constitution of the United States, and 
the constitution of your own State on these points : 
taxation ; quartering of troops ; freedom of speech ; 
freedom from arbitrary arrest. 

2. Compare the Triennial Acts of 1641 and 1694. 

Anne. 1. The Sacheverell case. 
Gardiner, III., 690. 

2. Marlborough as a general. 

C— Map Work. 

1. The possessions of the Emperor Charles V. 

2. Division of England in 1642 between Cavaliers and 

Roundheads. 

3. Locate Edgehill, Marston Moor, Naseby, Newbury, Drog- 

heda, Dunbar, Worcester, Sedgmoor, Boyne, Blenheim. 

4. What territory did England gain by the peace of Utrecht, 



CHAPTER V. 

THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK (PART I.). 
1714 to 1837, — 123 years. 

George I. George III. William IV. 

George II. George IV. 

ON the death of Queen Anne (1714), George I., Elector 
of Hanover, succeeded to the crown, in the fifty-fifth 
Character of year of his age. He was the son of the Duke of 
George i. Brunswick, Elector of Hanover, and, on his mother's 
side, was the great-grandson of James I. of England. Before 
l.e ascended the throne he had acquired some reputation as 
a politician and a general. He was plain in his manners, 
and not of elevated character or taste ; but he was a man of 
great application to business, and his reign was pacific and 
prosperous. Some faults in his government were attributed to 
a venal ministry ; and he was esteemed to the end of his life, 
in his views and conduct, much more the Elector of Hanover 
than the King of England. Sir Robert Walpole was George's 
principal adviser, and was one of the most eminent statesmen 
of his time. 

2. The two parties, which had long divided the kingdom, 
now, for a time, changed their titles : the Whigs being styled 
The Pre- Hanoverians ; and the Tories, Jacobites. The for- 
tender. mer ^ b e i n g strenuous advocates for the accession 

of George, received, in return, from him favor and support, and 
were restored to power. This circumstance alienated and 
enraged the Tories to such a degree, that many of them took 
part with the Pretender, son of James II., who was proclaimed 
164 



1727.] THE HOUSE OE BRUNSWICK. 165 

king in Scotland, and made an effort to obtain the crown ; but 
the rebellion was suppressed, and the leaders executed. 

3. A pacific reign like that of George I. furnishes few events 
of importance in history. One, however, of disastrous conse- 
quences, occurred, commonly called the " South -sea south-sea 
Bubble," — a wild scheme of speculation by the Bubble - 
South Company, who had the exclusive right to trade with the 
Spanish Colonies in America, and who bought up the govern- 
ment annuities, paying for them in its own stock. In this way it 
promised to pay off the national debt, and to loan the govern- 
ment money at a low rate of interest. It was a base imposture, 
giving a great shock to public credit, and involving thousands 
in ruin. 

4. The Septennial Act made the length of a parliament 
seven years, instead of three as before. One object septennial 
of this change was to avoid the excitement of fre- Act - 
quent elections, and changes of parliament. 

5. During this reign Daniel Defoe wrote " Robinson Crusoe," 
Dean Swift gave to the world his " Gulliver's Trav- Literary 
els," Watts composed many of his sacred lyrics, celebrities, 
and Thomson published the first part of his poem called " The 
Seasons." 

King George died of apoplexy, in Germany, in 1727, leaving 
one son, who became his successor. 

6. George II., who succeeded his father (1727) in the 
forty-fourth year of his age, was an able general of great per- 
sonal courage, but was too fond of war, and de- 

° ' ' Walpole. 

lighted in military parade. The most prominent 
person in the administration in the former part of the reign (as 
in the previous reign also) was Sir Robert Walpole, a man 
whose policy was pacific, and who was distinguished for his 
talents, and not less so for the system of corruption and venal- 
ity which he practised while in office. 

7. The military operations of this reign were extensive and 
numerous; and the British arms were, for the most part, tri- 



1 66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1743. 

umphant. Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, who died in 1 740, 
was succeeded in his dominions by his daughter, the celebrated 
The Aus- Maria Theresa {Te-re-zaJi) , who was married to 
trian sue- Francis of Lorraine. But Charles, the Elector of 
Bavaria, asserted his claim to the throne, and, by 
the aid of Louis XV., was elected emperor. This gave rise 
to a war, which involved the principal states of Europe, called 
the war of the Austrian succession, during which the allies 
under George II. defeated the French in the battle of Dettin- 
gen (1743), and the French under Marshal Saxe routed the 
allies at Fontenoy (1745). Great Britain was the principal 
support of Maria Theresa ; and by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 
(Akes-lah-cha-pel) in 1 748 her claim to the throne was con- 
firmed. 

8. While George II. was absent on the Continent at the head 

of the British army, Charles Edward, the young Pretender, 

assisted by Louis XV. of France, made an effort to 

Culloden. . . - . . XT 

recover the throne of his ancestors. Having 
landed in Scotland, he put himself at the head of an army, and 
defeated the royal forces in the battles of Preston-Pans and 
Falkirk, but was afterwards entirely defeated by the Duke of 
Cumberland in the decisive battle of Culloden (1746). This 
was the last battle that has been fought on the soil of Great 
Britain ; and it terminated the last effort of the Stuart family to 
re-ascend the throne, which had been forfeited by an obstinate 
disregard of the rights of the people. 

g. In the latter part of this reign the war between Great 
Britain and France, called the "Seven-Years' War," was re- 
newed, in which their American Colonies also took 

Seven- 

Years' War. part. In an expedition by the English and Amen- 
Wash - cans against the French at Fort Duquesne {Du- 

kdne), now Pittsburg, Penn., George Washington, 
then a young officer in the Virginia militia, distinguished him- 
self in conducting the retreat of the forces after their com- 
mander, Gen. Braddock, had been slain. In the course of a 



1 7 59.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 167 

few years the English took Duquesne, Louisburg (on the Island 
of Cape Breton), Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Niagara; and 
finally, under the command of Gen. Wolfe, they gained pos- 
session (1759) of the city of Quebec. These successes were 
followed by the surrender of all Canada, on the part of tht 
French, to the English, in 1763. 

10. Extensive conquests in India were made by the English 
during this period. In the time of Elizabeth a company was 
chartered for trade in the East Indies ; and by sub- East-India 
sequent renewals of its charter, and acts of Parlia- Com P an y- 
ment, its business and operation became very extensive under 
the name of the " East-India Company." Its principal factories 
or trading-posts were at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. The 
French had similar stations in India, and were making vigorous 
efforts to monopolize the trade and control of the country. 

11. In 1 75 1, Robert Clive, a former clerk of the East-India 
Company, with a few soldiers, and by the aid of some of the 
friendly native princes, made a sudden attack upon 

3 r r Lord Clive. 

the French and their allies, and completely routed 
them, and secured to the British the country along the east 
coast called the Carnatic. A few years later, Clive, with three 
thousand men, met and defeated Surajah Dowlah, the Nabob 
of Bengal, with an army of sixty thousand men, and added that 
rich and populous province to British India. 

12. During the reign of George II. Great Britain made great 
progress in wealth and general improvement. The national 
debt, however, was more than doubled during the National 
reign ; and at the end of the Seven-Years' War, in debt - 
1763, it amounted to nearly a hundred and thirty-nine million 
pounds. This debt was commenced during the reign of William 
and Mary, and at the end of the reign of George III. it 
amounted to upwards of eight hundred million pounds. 

13. George's temper was violent, his talents respectable, 
though little cultivated by education, and his internal ad- 
ministration generally equitable and popular; but his private 



1 68 HISTORY OF -ENGLAND. [1760. 

character was licentious, and the morals of the court during 
George's his reign were very corrupt. His partialities in 
character. favor of his continental dominions are represented 
as still stronger than those of his father, and he has been cen- 
sured for involving Great Britain in expensive wars on account 
of the interests of the electorate of Hanover. He died sud- 
denly in 1760 at the age of seventy-seven, after a reign of 
thirty-three years. 

The distinguished musical composer Handel, a native of 

Germany, though long a resident in England, died 

in London in 1759. 

14. George III., grandson and successor of George II., 
was the first king of the house of Brunswick that was born in 
state of the England. He commenced his reign (1760) at an 
country. auspicious period, when the arms of Great Britain 
were triumphant, and the administration able and popular. 
The war with France was, not long afterwards, brought to a 
close ; and, by the Peace of Paris, Canada, and other territories 
in North America, were confirmed to England. 

15. William Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham) was at the head 
of the administration during the last years of the preceding 
William reign ; and in the former part of this he was the 
Pitt - most prominent public man in the nation. At this 
period oppressive measures were adopted by the British Govern- 
n„„,-»*e,-™ ment with regard to the American Colonies. These 

Oppression o 

of American Chatham opposed with his powerful eloquence ; but 
they were persisted in by the king and Parliament. 
The Colonies were taxed, but had no representation in Parlia- 
ment ; and a law called the " Stamp Act," requiring a stamp, 
purchased of the government, to be affixed to every legal docu- 
ment in the Colonies, was passed by Parliament in 1765. The 
British Government found great difficulty in enforcing this act, 
and other measures obnoxious to the Americans were stoutly 
resisted by them. 

16. In 1775 hostilities commenced, and a very stubborn spirit 



1783.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 169 

of resistance was everywhere manifested by the Colonies. The 
first engagements took place at Concord and Lexington, and 
Bunker Hill, in Massachusetts : and the Americans „.. . 

The Ameri- 

soon after captured important forts on the west side can Revoiu- 
of Lake Champlain. In the following year (July tlon " 
4, 1776) a declaration of the independence of the United 
States was made, in which were boldly set forth the grievances 
of the Colonies, and their right and determination to be free 
and independent. The war continued nearly seven years (dur- 
ing which more than fifty engagements took place), and was 
virtually teminated by the surrender of the British army, under 
Cornwallis, at Yorktown, Va., in October, 1781. The inde- 
pendence of the Colonies was finally acknowledged by Great 
Britain, by a treaty signed at Paris in September, 1783. 

17. The East-India Company had now become a powerful 
political organization for English supremacy in the East ; and 
by it vast acquisitions of territory were made, and warren 
great injustice and robbery were practised upon the Hastings, 
natives. Warren Hastings was appointed Governor-general of 
British India in 1774. He was a man of distinguished ability 
and dauntless courage ; and his administration was highly 
beneficial to British interests in India, which he successfully 
defended against an invading army of ninety thousand men, 
under Hyder Ali {Hider Ah' -lee) , a noted Mohammedan chief- 
tain of Mysore. But the expense of numerous wars, and his 
efforts to satisfy the repeated demands of the East-India Com- 
pany for a larger revenue, induced Hastings to resort to meas- 
ures that were unjust, and which finally resulted in his downfall. 
He was accused of repeated exaction and extortions towards 
the natives ; of seizing provinces, and selling them for money 
to the chiefs of rival districts ; of plundering the holy city of 
Benares; and finally of imprisoning two princesses of Oude, 
until they paid him a ransom, or fine, of about six million dol- 
lars. After an administration of eleven years, he resigned his 
office, and returned to England, where he was afterwards im- 



170 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1795. 

peached by the House of Commons before the peers of the 
realm. 

18. The trial of Hastings was one of the most remarkable 
upon record. It was held in Westminster Hall, which was 
Hastings's begun by William Rufus, and which had been the 
trial- scene of the trial and conviction of Wallace the 
Scot, Oldcastle, Thomas More, Somerset, Essex, Guy Fawkes, 
Strafford, Bacon, and Charles I. There, also, had been held 
the coronation festivities of nearly thirty of England's kings. 
The opening of the trial took place in the presence of many 
of the most distinguished personages of the land. The peers 
sat clothed in gold and ermine ; and there were present the 
high officials of the kingdom, ambassadors of foreign powers, 
civil and military celebrities, Mrs. Siddons the celebrated 
actress, Sir Joshua Reynolds the painter, Gibbon the historian, 
the eminent scholar Dr. Parr, and many of the distinguished 
women of court and society. 

The prosecution was conducted by Burke, Fox, Sheridan, 
and others, all eminent as orators and public men. The open- 
ing speech of Burke occupied nearly four days, and was one 
of the most masterly efforts of the kind ever delivered. Has- 
tings afterwards declared, that, at times during its delivery, he 
began to look upon himself as a guilty man. The trial was 
continued from time to time, during each session of Parlia- 
ment, for seven years, occupying altogether one hundred and 
forty-eight days; and at its close, in 1795, Hastings was ac- 
quitted. • 

19. In the latter part of the century there was much discon- 
tent in Ireland, occasioned principally by a party who wished to 
Union of sever their connection with England. An insurrec- 
Engiand and tion occurred, in which two hundred and fifty thou- 

Ireland. san( j p e0 p} e t 00 k p art . ]^ u |- ft was s00n suppressed, 

and in 1800, after some opposition, Great Britain and Ireland 
were united under one Parliament, and took the name of " The 
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." 



1805.J THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 171 

20. In 1 789 the French Revolution broke out, convulsing all 
Europe ; and it was thought to threaten the overthrow of all 
established government. The government of Great General Eu- 
Britain, alarmed respecting its own safety, embarked ropean war. 
zealously in the European war with a view to check the dis- 
semination of democratic principles both at home and abroad. 
The system of operations was devised and managed under the 
direction of William Pitt, the son of Lord Chatham, who was 
now at the head of the administration. This calamitous war 
continued to convulse the Continent for a quarter of a century ; 
and, during a part of the time, Great Britain alone had all 
Europe arrayed against her. But, after various alternations of 
failure and success, she came off victorious, yet not without 
an immense loss of the blood of her subjects, and a vast 
increase of her national debt. 

21. Some of the British victories during this war were im- 
portant, and are conspicuous in military history. In 1798 
Napoleon Bonaparte, at that time commander-in- Battle of 
chief of the French armies, invaded Egypt, intend- the Nile - 
ing to get control of that country, and then to menace the 
British possessions in India. Lord Nelson, in command of an 
English fleet, followed, and, after a long search through the 
Mediterranean, came upon the French fleet in Aboukir (A/i- 
boo-keer'} Bay, near Alexandria. A brilliant engagement, gen- 
erally called the Battle of the Nile, soon followed, by night 
(Aug. 1), in which Nelson was the victor, and the French fleet 
was nearly annihilated. Brueys (Bru-a), the French admiral, 
was killed, and his flag-ship, "The Orient," took fire and 
exploded, causing the death of his youthful son, Cassabianca, 
— an event touchingly commemorated in a poem of that name 
by Mrs. Hemans. 

22. In October, 1805, Nelson fought another naval battle, 
against the combined French and Spanish fleets, off 

r Trafalgar. 

Cape Trafalgar', on the coast of Spain. Before 

going into action, he signalled to his fleet the order which has 



172 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1809. 

rendered his name famous : " England expects every man to 
do his duty." The contest was a fierce one, with a heavy loss 
on both sides ; but the English were completely victorious, 
although Nelson was mortally wounded by a musket-ball, and 
died on board his flagship, " The Victory." 

23. The Spanish Peninsula was the scene of many brilliant 
campaigns during this war. In 1809 Sir John Moore, a cele- 
Sirjohn brated English general, was in command of the 
Moore. allied forces against the French under Marshal 
Soult, and fought a successful battle at Corunna (Jan. 16), in 
which he lost his life. His hasty burial at night, on the ram- 
parts of Corunna, has been made historic by the poet Wolfe, 
in one of the finest odes in the English language, commen- 
cing, — 

" Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note." 

24. The Duke of Wellington won many of his laurels in the 
peninsula. In 1809, in command of the English and Spanish 

forces, he gained a decisive victory over the French, 

Talavera. ° J 

at Talavera, in what he himself called one of the 
hardest fought battles of modern times. It continued two days 
and a night, and each party lost a fourth of its numbers. 

Wellington fought an equally decisive battle at Salamanca 
(181 2), in which, taking advantage of some mistakes of the 

enemy, his movements splendidly displayed his 

Salamanca. . . 

military genius, and established his reputation as 
one of the greatest commanders of the age. To be able to 
avail one's self fully and safely of the flood-tide of opportunity, 
is one of the surest high-roads to successful military achieve- 
ment. 

A third contest was waged, with similar good fortune, at 

Vittoria, in 18 13. The victory here was complete ; 

Vittoria. 

and the captures of cannon, wagons, ammunitions, 
treasure, and cattle, were very large. 

25. But the crowning battle of this general war in Europe 



1815.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 1 73 

was fought on the 18th of June, 181 5, near the village of Water- 
loo, in Belgium, a few miles south of Brussels. The Waterloo, 
allied troops, composed of English, Belgians, and The forces. 
Germans, were commanded by Wellington, and the French by 
Napoleon. The armies engaged were of nearly equal num- 
bers, each having more than seventy thousand troops ; those 
of the French being mostly tried veterans, with two hundred 
and forty cannon, while the allies were made up of several 
nationalities, with some raw troops, and a hundred and forty- 
nine cannon. A large body of Prussian allies, under Blucher 
(B/ook'-er), were a few miles distant, holding in check the 
enemy in that quarter, with instructions, if defeated, to join 
Wellington. Napoleon sent Marshal Grouchy (Groo'-shy), 
with more than twenty thousand men, to watch Blucher, and to 
prevent him, if possible, from coming to the aid of the allies. 

26. On the night of the 17th the two armies took their 
positions on two opposite semicircular ridges, separated by a 
shallow valley, or plain, varying from a fourth to 
less than a half of a mile in width. During the 
night the rain fell in torrents, much to the discomfort of the 
troops and to the embarrassment of their movements during 
the ensuing forenoon. The attack was begun by the French at 
eleven o'clock a.m. ; and a terrific battle, hotly contested, con- 
tinued until dark. The French made some important gains 
during the day, but towards evening they were driven back 
with great loss ; and when Blucher arrived, at about seven 
o'clock, the rout became complete. Grouchy, by a literal inter- 
pretation of his orders, neglected to come to the relief of 
Napoleon. The last rally and charge by the French was made 
by the Old Guards, nearly all of whom perished ; and the 
battle was lost. Blucher continued in pursuit of the fugitives 
during a considerable part of the night. 

The total loss was not far from twenty-five thousand on each 
side, and two hundred and twenty-seven of the French cannon 
were taken. Several distinguished English officers fell, and the 



174 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1812. 

French Marshal Ney had five norses shot under him. Napoleon 
escaped to Paris, and attempted to embark for 
America, but was taken by the allies, and impris- 
oned upon the Island of St. Helena. 

The battle of Waterloo was one of the most important in its 
consequences in modern times. It put an end to the ambi- 
Effect upon tious career of Napoleon, who had been a disturb- 
Europe. m g element in European affairs for many years, 

gave to England the first position among the great powers 
of Europe, and inaugurated a better policy for the progress of 
civilization. 

27. In 1 81 2 the United States declared war against Great 
Britain. English men-of-war had repeatedly searched Ameri- 
w rwitn can sm P s > an d impressed English sailors found 
the united thereon. The United States denied the right of 
states. British authorities to make such search, and hostili- 
ties ensued. The war was carried on principally upon the 
water, where more than twenty naval actions took place. A 
few engagements upon land occurred along the Canadian 
frontier and in the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay ; and at New 
Orleans, Jan. 8, 181 5, the last battle was fought, in which the 
Americans, under Gen. Andrew Jackson, gained a decisive 
victory over the British under Packenham {Pak'n-am). A 
treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, Dec. 24, 18 14, before the 
battle of New Orleans, although at that time no news of such a 
treaty had reached America. In that treaty no mention was 
made of the question of the right of search, which had oc- 
casioned the war. 

28. The reign of George III., who died in 1820, was longer 
than that of any other English monarch ; and it forms a dis- 
Character of Anguished period in the history of the kingdom, on 
George iii.'s account of its military events and the progress of 
reign. ^e na ^ion in commerce, wealth, and the arts. Dur- 
ing the last ten years of his life he was afflicted with insanity to 
such a degree as entirely disqualified him for all business, and 



i82o.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 175 

the Prince of Wales acted as regent. His talents were not 
brilliant, nor were his views as a statesman enlarged ; but his 
private character was exemplary, and he was much respected 
by his subjects. 

29. A large number of persons distinguished in the various 
walks of life lived during this reign. Among the eminent 
orators, statesmen, and barristers, were Burke, Fox, Eminent 
the elder and the younger Pitt, Curran, and statesmen. 
Grattan, and Sheridan, a dramatist also. To these may be 
added Blackstone, a jurist, legal writer, and author of "Com- 
mentaries on English Law," a standard text-book in the legal 
profession; Lord Mansfield, chief justice of the King's Bench 
for more than thirty years ; Lord North, prime-minister to 
George III., and a strenuous opponent of the American Colo- 
nies ; and Lord Chesterfield, a noted courtier, orator, and wit, 
and regarded as a model of politeness, and, in fashionable 
society, a kind of oracle of taste. 

30. Some of the numerous literary celebrities were the poets 
Burns and Byron, both of extraordinary genius \ Gray, author 
of "The Elegy written in a Country Churchyard ; " Literary 
Coleridge, poet and critic ; Cowper (Koo'-per), au- celebrities, 
thor of "The Task;" Walter Scott, novelist and poet; Gold- 
smith, poet and miscellaneous writer, and author of " The Vicar 
of Wakefield ; " and Sterne, who wrote "Tristram Shandy" and 
"The Sentimental Journey." Samuel Johnson, a great scholar 
and distinguished writer, was the author of an English diction- 
ary, of "The Lives of the Poets," and of many poems and 
critical writings. 

31. In the department of historical literature, Hume was 
the author of a "History of England ;" Gibbon 

J ° Historians. 

wrote "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- 
pire ; " and Robertson is best known by his " History of the 
Life and Times of Charles V. of Germany." 

32. In 1 769 a series of political letters and satires, over the 
signature of "Junius/' appeared, and were continued for about 



176 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1820. 

three years. They were written with remarkable ability, and 
Letters of criticised the government and public men with un- 
junius. usual severity. It has generally been supposed 

that they were written by Sir Philip Francis, though their real 
authorship was never known. 

33 . Sir Joshua Reynolds stands unsurpassed among English 
Art and the portrait-painters ; and Mrs. Siddons, a native of 
drama. South Wales, was the most celebrated actress Great 
Britain has ever produced. David Garrick was also an emi- 
nent actor and dramatist. 

34. Whitefield (Hwit '-feeld) and John Wesley, both dis- 
senters, were distinguished popular preachers, and both visited 
Prominent America. Wesley became the founder of the de- 
dissenters, nomination of Methodists ; and his brother Charles, 
a preacher also, was the author of many religious hymns of 
great popularity. 

35. In the military and naval history of Great Britain, there 
„ " . are many examples of brilliant achievement and 

Military and J L 

naval patriotic devotion to their country's welfare ; but in 

heroes. ^ s reS p ec t n0 ne are surer of lasting fame, and a 

place in the hearts of their countrymen, than Nelson and Wel- 
lington, some of whose exploits have been mentioned. 

36. Toward the latter part of this reign a new kind of peri- 
odical publication had its origin, in " The Edinburgh Review " 
Periodical (1802), the organ of the Whig and reforming 
reviews. party, which was followed (1809) by its rival, "The 
London Quarterly Review," which became a bold advocate of 
Tory principles. In 181 7 "Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine" 
(monthly) was established under the editorship of Professor 
John Wilson, known as Christopher North. This magazine has 
also striven to be a check upon the doctrines advocated by 
"The Edinburgh Review." These publications are still con- 
tinued, and have always been edited with great ability, and 
have exerted among the educated classes a wide influence in 
politics, literature, social and religious affairs. 






*82o.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK'. 177 

37. During the period of a hundred and twenty years, be* 
tween the beginning of the eighteenth century and the close of 
the reign of George III. (in 1820), very considera- Progress 
ble progress was made by the government and peo- made. 

pie of Great Britain. Gradually the power of the sovereign 
had come to be administered through his counsellors or min- 
istry, rather than by himself personally. 

38. The condition of the common people had long been 
one of hardship and suffering; but in the early part of the 
present century, even amid burdens grievous to condition of 
be borne, some improvement began to be realized. the people. 
During the latter part of the general European war, nearly 
a million of people were engaged, directly and indirectly, in 
carrying on war's destructive work. This lessened the number 
of laborers at home, and greatly increased the demand for 
some products needed by the army ; in consequence of which, 
wages became more remunerative, and afforded a better sup- 
port to the poor. Carpenters, masons, and hand-loom weavers, 
earned variously, in Scotland and England, from seventeen to 
twenty-five shillings per week ; while field-hands and unskilled 
laborers received from eleven to fifteen shillings for the same 
time. 

After the close of the war, many of the industries of the 
country were less profitable : employment was not always to be 
found, and the pay was greatly reduced. The introduction of 
the power-loom caused much distress among the hand-weavers, 
compelling them to labor, for sixteen or eighteen hours per 
day, for the pittance of from nine to sixteen pence. 

39. But war-prices of bread, meat, clothing, and other neces- 
saries of life, more than kept pace with war- wages. In 1792 
wheat sold for five shillings and tenpence per cost of 
bushel, while in 1801 the price rose to twenty-two Hvi'g. 
shillings and sixpence. Legislation was mostly cont.jlled by 
land-owners, and hence land-owners and farmers were pros- 
perous. The importation of wheat was prohibited by law, 



178 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1820. 

until it became very scarce and the price high ; and cattle 
could not be introduced from abroad on any terms. Thus 
prices were kept high, and the farmer was able to pay large 
rents for the benefit of the landlords ; while the laboring classes 
were kept poor, and were often reduced to the verge of starva- 
tion. Famines were of not uncommon occurrence. In Edin- 
burgh, at one time, one-eighth of the people were supported 
by charity ; and at Paisley the whole population were some- 
times absolutely without bread or meal. The magistrates of 
some districts prescribed the amount of bread families were 
expected to consume. 

40. The expenses of living were greatly increased by high 
taxes on many of the comforts of life. Tea and sugar were so 

exorbitantly taxed, that their use was much re- 
stricted ; and the tax on salt was forty times the 
cost of its manufacture. The windows of houses were also 
taxed ; and this compelled many poor people to build them up, 
and the shutting-out of light resulted in much discomfort and 
sickness. The revenue from paper was three times greater 
than the amount of wages paid to all the laborers engaged in 
its manufacture. Toward the close of the eighteenth century, 
newspapers, which had come to have considerable influence in 
public affairs, were taxed ; and, as their influence was frequently 
in favor of liberal principles, the government made this tax, in 
18 14, fourpence on every copy printed, partly for revenue, but 
also to keep them from the common people. 

The aggregate of taxation for the support of government 
was enormous. At the close of the war with the American 
Colonies, it was about one pound for each person of the entire 
population, and in 18 14 it rose above five pounds for each 
inhabitant. 

41. The criminal laws of Great Britain in the eighteenth 
CriminaH century were very severe. They designated more 
laws. than two hundred capital offences, three-fourths 
of which originated in the legislation of the tune of the 



1 820.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 179 

Georges. Shooting rabbits, stealing property of the value of 
five shillings or more, or stealing any thing from a bleach-field, 
appearing in disguise on the highway, cutting down young trees, 
writing threatening letters to extort money, and numerous other 
similar offences, were all punishable with death. In 181 6 one 
hundred and four persons were convicted of forgery, of whom 
eighteen were executed. Felons seemed to be regarded as 
incapable of reform, and their lives as useless to themselves and 
to society. 

42. The execution of the laws was barbarous in the extreme. 
The bodies of persons hanged were often afterwards beheaded 
and cut in pieces, and exposed in public places ; Execution 
and special indignities were shown to those con- of laws - 
victed of treason. Prisons were small and unventilated, with 
little light, damp floors, and without beds, and infested with 
vermin. In such apartments, prisoners were huddled 

,...'_ . Prisons. 

together irrespective of age or sex, where pn son- 
fevers and other diseases often found more victims than the 
law. 

Jailers received no salary, but derived their income from sell- 
ing food, straw for bedding, and other favors, to the prisoners. 
Those acquitted of crime by the courts were obliged to pay all 
dues to the jailer before they could be released ; and this some- 
times resulted in additional imprisonment for months, and even 
for years. 

43. In the latter part of the century, John Howard, called 
the " Philanthropist," became so impressed with the inhumanity 
of the English prison system, that he heroically set j ohn How „ 
himself to work to secure its reform, — a task slow ard - 

of accomplishment, but one which eventually resulted in great 
improvement in the prisons and in the comfort of their unfor- 
tunate inmates. 

44. The poor, also, about this time began to receive addi- 
tional attention. The magistrates were authorized, by a special 
law, to contribute to their relief from the public treasury. 



180 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1820. 

This power was too freely exercised ; and abuses of the law fol- 
lowed to such an extent as to greatly increase the 

The poor. _ .. . , 

number of paupers, and to produce among the 
lower classes a general disinclination to labor. The expense, 
too, became alarming. In 1801 the aggregate poor-rates for 
England and Wales were four million pounds, and in 181 8 they 
reached twice that sum. This burden became a prominent 
subject of reform in a subsequent reign. 

45. Trade and commerce were extended in all directions. 
The trade with the American Colonies before the war had been 
Trade and considerable, but after that event it was greatly in- 
commerce. creased. Rice, tobacco, and other products were 
extensively imported ; and, from the West-India Islands, sugar 
was obtained in large quantities ; while mahogany and other 
ornamental woods, and logwood, were brought from the Central- 
American states, and especially from British Honduras, which 
had been acquired in 1783. 

Many vessels and much capital were engaged in the East- 
India trade, which brought to England a great variety of useful 
products, and yielded a revenue to the government and large 
profits to the adventurers. The trade with Holland and some 
other European countries had also become more extended and 
lucrative. The importation of foreign commodities added 
much to the wealth of the nation and to the comforts of the 
people. 

The navigation of the English Channel was rendered safer 
by the erection, in 1759, of the Eddystone Lighthouse, a sub- 
stantial stone structure, on a dangerous reef of rocks on the 
south coast of England. 

46. The manufacturing interest was prosperous, and great 
improvements were made. This was noticeably true in articles 
Manufac- of porcelain and earthenware. In 1759 Wedgwood 
tures. established an ornamental pottery, and soon after 
produced the delicate cream-colored ware, covered with a glaze, 
called by his name, though better known as queen's ware. It 



i82o.j THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 181 

was furnished at a rate which brought it within the reach of the 
common people. He also executed copies of antique vases, 
sculpture, and cameos, of most exquisite workmanship. This 
branch of manufactures became very extensive and lucrative, 
and did much to refine the national taste. 

About the middle of the century, forty thousand people were 
engaged in the manufacture of cutlery at Sheffield, where the 
business had been introduced in the fourteenth century, and 
fifty thousand were employed at Birmingham in producing 
hardware, and various articles of iron and steel. 

The invention of the spinning-jenny and other machinery, 
and the use of steam, gave an impulse to the production of 
silk, woollen, and cotton fabrics. When the spinning-jennies 
were first introduced, they were often destroyed by the ignorant 
hand-spinners, who feared that they would take from them their 
occupation. Steam-power was also employed in many of the 
large iron-works, and in the coal-mines, which had come to be 
extensively worked. 

47. Agriculture received more attention, and ' was much 
improved. Flower and vegetable gardens were very common 
among all classes : the potato was introduced and 

i • 1 i 1 ■ i r r i Agriculture. 

cultivated, and became an article of common food. 

Before 1720, greenhouses, for the cultivation of flowers and 

tropical fruits, had been introduced. 

48. The state of religion was low, in the Established Church 
and among dissenters, in the early part of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. Many of the clergy were better known for 

, Religion. 

their high living, worldly-mindedness, and their 
fondness for fox-hunting, than for their spiritual gifts and min- 
istrations ; and among laymen, corruption and vice were fearfully 
prevalent. But later in the century there was an improvement 
in religion and morals, brought about largely by the preaching 
of Whitefield and Wesley and their followers. Sabbath schools 
were established by Robert Raikes in 1781. 

49. The severe laws against the Catholics, passed in the 



182 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1820. 

reign of William and Mary, extended their imbittering influence 
into and nearly through the eighteenth century, 
against No Catholic could teach school, hold a civil office, 

Catholics. or conduct any religious rites ; and all Catholic 
youth were obliged to abjure their religion at the age of eigh- 
teen, or forfeit all their rights to property, which could be 
claimed by their Protestant relatives. 

An act was passed in 1 788, called the Catholic Relief Bill, 
which removed those disabilities, except in relation to holding 
office. This law met with much opposition among Protestants, 
and was so stoutly resisted in Scotland, that it could not be 
carried into operation. In London, in 1 780, it occasioned riots, 
which continued for a week, and were suppressed only by mili- 
tary power after the loss of five hundred lives and the destruction 
of a vast amount of property. 

50. The general literature of this period does not take a high 
rank. In 1709 Steele started a tri-weekly publication, called 
Literature "The Tatler," devoted to essays rather than to 
and authors, news \ and this was followed, in 1711, by "The 
Spectator," a daily of a similar character conducted by Addison. 
The essays in these publications were of a high order, and are 
regarded as models of good style. 

The number of noted authors, aside from those already men- 
tioned, in the reign of George III., was not large. Daniel 
Defoe, a miscellaneous writer of considerable power, published 
in 1 719 "Robinson Crusoe," a work of remarkable popularity; 
and Dean Swift, a celebrated divine, satirist, and wit, gave to 
the world in 1726 "Gulliver's Travels," a kind of satire on 
mankind and the institutions of civilized countries. Fielding, 
who flourished about the middle of the century, is often called 
the father of the English novel ; and to the same school be- 
longed Richardson and Smollet ; but the merit of their works 
has not secured for them a prominent or an enduring place in 
literature. 

51. The introduction of many articles from China, Japan, 



1820.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 183 

and India, the use of mahogany and other ornamental woods, 
and the improved quality of some kinds of house- Articles of 
hold furniture, such as chairs, tables, bedsteads, and comfort, 
cabinets, gave to the dwellings of all classes a better furnishing 
and adornment. Old furniture of that period is now often 
sought for on account of the excellence of its style and manu- 
facture. The Kidderminster carpets began to be made about 
the middle of the century, and soon after came into general 
use among the wealthier classes. 

52. The fine arts were not neglected. The Royal Academy 
of Art was founded in 1768; and the names of Kneller, West, 
Hogarth (the painter of morals and manners in high 

Fine 3.rts 

life, as well as low), and Reynolds (the founder of 
the English school of painting) , are classic names in art. Much 
progress was also made in music in its various de- 
partments, and especially in sacred music. Many 
of the productions of that period are still in use. The oratorio 
was first brought out in London by Handel in 1720. 

53. The state of society can hardly be spoken of in terms 
of praise. The principles of religion and morals had but little 
restraining influence upon the people in domestic state of 
and social life. The men were much given to dis- society, 
sipation and gambling ; and the women, generally very ignorant, 
were addicted to frivolity and gossip. The principal amusements 
of the different classes were hunting, fishing, music, dancing, 
dice, cards, puppet-shows, football, fairs, and the frequenting 
of watering-places. The man of fashion is described as dressed 
in a cocked hat, powdered wig, and gold-laced scarlet coat ; 
while the lady, with powdered hair, and patches upon her face, 
was attired in flowered brocades and immense hoops. 

54. But there was an improvement in society during the latter 
part of this period, and especially after the close of the Euro- 
pean war. The education and the morals of the Education 
better classes received more attention, and the youth and morals, 
of all classes began to receive instruction in Sunday schools. 



184 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1820. 

Literary clubs were formed ; periodical literature became quite 
common ; bitterness of feeling towards the Catholics was less- 
ened ; and the general tone of public sentiment was more 
elevated and improved. 

55. Several events of general importance took place during 
Notable the period now under review. The uniform of the 

events. English navy (blue faced with white) was adopted 

by George II. in 1 748, who saw and admired those colors in 
a riding-dress worn by the Duchess of Bedford. 

In 1752 Parliament changed the mode of reckoning time, 
which in the course of many centuries, since the adoption of 
the Julian Calendar, had ceased to be correct. Eleven days, 
from the 3d to the 14th of September, were left out of the 
calendar ; and this is known as the change from Old Style to 
New Style. It was opposed by some ignorant people, who be- 
lieved that it shortened their lives by that number of days. This 
is called (from Pope Gregory XIII.) the Gregorian Calendar. 

The first canal in England was constructed in 1755, for the 
purpose of carrying coals from the mines to Manchester. 

The first savings bank in England was established at Totten- 
ham, in 1798, for the earnings of poor children; and the first 
London savings bank was opened in 1816. 

In 1805, at Methyr Tydvil, in Wales, a steam- carriage was 
first drawn over an iron railway by a locomotive, carrying ten 
tons of coal, at a speed of five miles an hour ; and the first 
passenger steamboat in Great Britain, called "The Comet," 
made its appearance upon the Clyde in 181 2. 

A portion of London was lighted by gas in 1807; but the 
measure was fiercely opposed by capitalists and seamen, who 
contended that it would throw out of employment thousands 
of men engaged in the whaling business and in the building of 
whale-ships, and render idle millions of capital invested in that 
enterprise. No agency in modern times has interposed so 
effectual a check upon the commission of crime in cities and 
towns by night as gaslights in the streets. 



i82o.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 185 

In 181 7 a new bridge over the Thames in London was com- 
pleted, and, in honor of the recent victory, was named the 
Waterloo Bridge. It is nearly fourteen hundred feet long, cost 
over five million dollars, and is regarded as one of the finest 
bridges in the world. 

56. The population of England and Wales is believed to 
have been, in 1710, somewhat more than 5,000,000; that of 
Scotland, about 1,000,000; and of Ireland, more 

than 2,000,000 ; making a total of over 7,000,000. ° pu a lon ' 
The first official census of England was in 1801, but it is not 
regarded as fully reliable. The first in Ireland was in 1821. 
In 1 80 1 the whole population, exclusive of Ireland, was about 
10,500,000, and in 181 1, nearly 12,000,000. Soon after the 
close of the reign of George III. (1821),- the total population 
was 21,000,000, of which more than 6,000,000 belonged to 
Ireland. 

The population of London in 1801 was 958,000; in 1811, 
1,138,000; and in 1821, 1,378,000. Liverpool, with a popu- 
lation of 5,000 in 1700, rose to 77,600 in 1801, and to about 
119,000 in 182 1. Edinburgh then numbered more than 100,- 
000, and Glasgow, 147,000. 

57. George IV., who succeeded his father in 1820, was a 
man of talents and accomplishments : but his life, during both 
his youth and his manhood, had been marked by character of 
great prodigality and dissipation ; and there was George iv 
little in his character or his conduct, while a sovereign, to entitle 
him to the affection or respect of his subjects. While a prince, 
and not in power, he connected himself with the opposition, or 
Whigs ; but, both as regent and king, he adhered to the Tories, 
to the neglect of his former friends. 

58. Soon after the accession of George IV. a bill for divor- 
cing and degrading the queen, Caroline, on charges Q uee n Caro- 
of misconduct, was introduced into the House of linc - 
Lords, and, after being carried by a vote of a hundred and eight 
to ninety-nine, was abandoned. The queen died soon after. 



1 86 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1828, 

59. The Greeks having for some years maintained a sangui- 
nary struggle for independence against the Turks, an interpo- 
Greek sition in their favor was made by England, France, 
affairs. an( j Russia ; and the united fleets of these three 
powers obtained, in 1827, a great victory over the Turkish and 
Egyptian fleets in the Bay of Navarino (see map, p. 195). 

60. In 1828 the Corporation and Test Act, which had long 
operated to exclude Catholics and Dissenters from all corporate 
Relief of offices, was repealed ; and it was followed (in 1829) 
Catholics. by the still more important measure of Catholic 
emancipation. By this act the laws imposing civil disabilities 
on Roman Catholics were partially repealed ; and Daniel 
O'Connell, the Irish orator and political agitator, took his seat 
in the House of Commons. In addition to these great national 
measures, many other important alterations and improvements 
were made in the laws of Great Britain during the reign of 
George IV. The penal code was improved by rendering pun- 
ishment more certain, and much less sanguinary. 

During this reign (1824), Lord Byron the poet died at 
Missolonghi, in Greece. 

61. George IV. was succeeded (in 1830) by his brother, the 
Duke of Clarence, with the title of William IV. In about 
wniiam iv. a month after his accession, a revolution took place 
and reform. m France, which caused the dethronement of 
Charles X. A widespread feeling of uneasiness and disaffec- 
tion was felt in England, and the country was alarmed by 
numerous incendiary fires. For many years the subject of a 
reform of the representation of the people in the House of 
Commons had been much agitated, and it was now more loudly 
called for than ever before. On the meeting of the new 
Parliament, the Duke of Wellington, the prime-minister, un- 
expectedly expressed himself strongly against any reform ; but 
the duke and his colleagues, not finding themselves supported 
by a majority of the House of Commons, resigned, and were 
succeeded by a Whig ministry, with Earl Grey at the head. 



1837.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 187 

62. On the 1 st of March, 1831, Lord John Russell, as the 
organ of the cabinet, brought into Parliament the first reform 
bill ; but this bill, and also a second one, the min- Reforms 
istry failed to carry through both Houses. But a secured, 
third bill was, after a violent struggle, carried, and enacted into 
a law, in June, 1832. This important measure, which renders 
the House of Commons a body much more effectually repre- 
senting the people, occupied the greater part of the first two 
years of the reign of William, to the exclusion of almost all 
other measures. The first Parliament elected under the new 
system assembled in January, 1833; and the reform of the 
representation was soon followed by the reform of the Irish 
Church, and the abolition of slavery in the British West Indies. 
William Wilberforce was the foremost champion of this last- 
named measure, by which eight hundred thousand slaves were 
set free (1834), and twenty million pounds were paid to their 
owners as compensation. 

For a long time the poor-laws had worked great harm to 
society, by their encouragement of pauperism and their inter- 
ference with honest industry. A commission was 

. . ... 1 , Poor-laws. 

appointed in 1832, whose investigations led to the 
enactment of a law (1834) which established work-houses for 
the able-bodied poor, and a judicious system of dispensing 
relief to the infirm and helpless. The beneficial effects of this 
act were soon apparent in a great reduction of poor-rates, and 
in the improved condition of the poor. 

In 1835 a much-needed reform took place in the local man- 
agement of towns and municipalities. Their officers had been 
almost self-appointed. Funds were expended with- Municipal 
out being accounted for, the administration of government, 
justice had been neglected, and general corruption prevailed. 
A. new law placed incorporated towns under the control of a 
mayor, aldermen and council, elected by resident tax-payers. 

The criminal laws received the attention of the reform party. 
While convictions under those laws had been comparatively 
easy, the execution of the laws was attended with great un- 



!SS HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1837. 

certainty; and crime had long been on the increase. In 1824 
more than a thousand persons were condemned to death, of 
Criminal whom only forty were executed. There were then 
laws. thirty-one offences punishable by death ; but, previ- 

ous to 1837, that penalty was abolished for twenty- one of those 
crimes ; and in that year the convictions were reduced to less 
than one-half their previous number. It was found that the 
prevention of crime was not secured so effectually by the severity 
of law, as by the certainty of its execution. 

In 1834 the charter of the East India Company was re- 
newed, with important modifications. 

Sir Walter Scott, the distinguished novelist and poet, whose 
name and genius have become indelibly associated with Scottish 
history, social life, and scenery, died during this reign, in 1832. 

63. William IV. had been a sailor in his youth, and had the 
free and easy manners of that class. He was a hearty friend 
character of °f reform, ruled with justice, and was beloved by 
William iv. his people. His death occurred, at the age of 
seventy-two, in 1837. 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK (PART II.). 

From 1837 to th e present time. 

Victoria. Edward VII. 

VICTORIA, who came to the throne in 1837 at the age 
of eighteen years, was the daughter of the Duke of Kent, 
and a niece of the late king, William IV. She had Auspicious 
been carefully educated, was of pleasing manners, beginning, 
and of great amiability, and firmness of character. Her acces- 
sion was the occasion of much rejoicing among her people, and 
gave promise of an auspicious reign ; which subsequent events 
have fulfilled. In 1840 she married her cousin, Prince Albert 
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

2. The little kingdom of Hanover in Germany, since the 
time of George I., had been an appendage to England, and 
was under the same sovereign, though with an in- Union with 
dependent administration ; but, as the law of sue- Hanover 
cession in Hanover does not allow females to occupy lsso ve 
the throne, the union with Great Britain was dissolved upon 
the accession of Victoria, and this state became once more 
independent. 

3. The youthful queen did not find her kingdom entirely 
peaceful and harmonious. In some of the colonies there was 
much dissatisfaction with the government ; and at sources of 
home great discontent prevailed among the labor- dl scontent. 
ing classes on account of low wages, want of employment, and 
the high price of provisions. In the manufacturing districts 

189 



190 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1838. 

strikes were common among the operatives, and at one time 
fifty thousand people in Scotland were out of employment on 
that account ; but the arrest of some of the ringleaders, who 
were intimidating new laborers, soon restored quiet and a re- 
newal of business. 

4. In 1838 a class of agitators for reform, called " Chartists," 
began to occupy a large share of public attention. In a docu- 
ment called by them the people's charter their 
principles were set forth under six heads : 1. Uni- 
versal suffrage; 2. Vote by ballot; 3. Paid representatives in 
Parliament; 4. Equal electoral districts; 5. The abolition of 
the property qualification ; and, 6. Annual parliaments. These 
subjects were widely discussed at mass meetings numerously 
attended ; and in 1839 the charter, signed by a large number of 
people, was presented to Parliament. Its refusal by that body 
led to some scenes of riot and violence ; but the government 
soon restored order. 

5. Chartism was apparently thrust aside for several years by 
the Anti-Corn- Law League, — an organization formed in 1838 

for the repeal of all duties on breadstuffs. Richard 

Corn-laws. 

Cobden^and John Bright, two of England's ablest 
statesmen, were zealous advocates for this measure ; and after 
much agitation the repeal was passed in 1846, and carried fully 
into effect in 1849. The navigation laws passed in the time 
of Cromwell, and which were now considered a restriction upon 
trade, were repealed the same year. 

6. Upon the occurrence of a revolution in France in 1848, 
chartism was revived for a time in Great Britain, and many 
Chartism re- threatening demonstrations were made throughout 
vived. ^g country. These were successfully quelled by 
the government ; and, after the presentation in Parliament of a 
monster petition in favor of the people's charter, the movement 
seemed to lose its organization, and soon passed from public 
notice. 

7. In 1 84 1, under the leadership of Daniel O'Connell, the sub- 



1841.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 191 

ject of a repeal of the union between Ireland and Great Britain 
was extensively agitated. Mass meetings were held throughout 
Ireland, thrilling speeches were made, and great ex- Se aration 
citement prevailed. The government finally took of Ireland 
measures \o prevent these mass meetings of the attem P ted - 
peoyte. O'Connell and some of his followers were tried, and 
convicted of sedition ; but the House of Lords reversed the 
judgment, and they were set at liberty. The leaders of a simi- 
lar agitation in 1848 were transported for life, some of whom 
escaped to the United States. 

8. One of the most beneficent influences upon social and 
domestic life at this time was the result of an extensive tem- 
perance reformation, which began in Ireland in Temperance 
1 84 1 under the direction of Father Mathew, an reform- 
Irish priest. Its effect in relieving poverty and diminishing 
crime was most salutary. Numerous temperance societies 
named from Father Mathew were organired, and the movement 
extended to other countries. 

9. In 1843 more than a third of all the ministers of the 
Established Church of Scotland seceded, in order to free them- 
selves from the interference of the civil courts in Scottish Free 
ecclesiastical matters. This movement caused Church - 
much excitement, and resulted in the formation of what has 
since been known as the Free Church of Scotland. 

10. Ireland experienced one of the most terrible famines in 
modern times in consequence of the failure of the potato-crop 
in that country in 1846-47. Most shocking scenes Famine in 
of suffering and death by starvation were witnessed Ireland - 

on all sides. The government generously ministered to the 
relief of the suffering ; and a national vessel was sent from the 
United States, laden with supplies purchased by private contri- 
bution. 

11. A most notable event occurred in London in 185 1, 
known as "The World's Fair," or exhibition of the industry of 
all nations. It took place in a mammoth building called "The 



192 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1861. 

Crystal Palace," constructed mostly of iron and glass, and was 
World's participated in by nations in all parts of the globe, 
fair. This project originated with the prince-consort; 

and its influence upon the social and industrial interests of the 
workl was so apparent, that it has since been imitated, with some 
improvements, by several countries. 

12. Prince Albert, the husband of the queen, died in Decem- 
Deathof b er > x 86i, much lamented. He was a man of 
Prince refined tastes, a friend of progress, and a benefactor 
Albert. tQ ^ e p 00r an( j t0 a y] charitable institutions. To 

the queen he was a wise and judicious counsellor, and was 
greatly beloved by the people. 

13. Several wars have taken place in the British Colonies 
and with foreign nations during the reign of the present sov- 
Canadian ereign, and there have also been some important 
rebellion. changes and events in colonial administration. 
Upper and Lower Canada had for some time been in a dis- 
turbed state ; and in 1837 an insurrection broke out, which was 
put down after great alarm and some bloodshed. In 1840 the 
two provinces were united under a constitutional government. 

14. The Afghan war was between 1838 and 1842. England 
undertook to support the Afghans against Persia, and finally to 

place on their throne a prince of a former reigning 

Afghan war. ... , „ „ ,. , 

house, to maintain whose authority a small English 
force was left in Cabul. Violent opposition to the new rule 
sprang up. These troops, seeing their danger, attempted to 
cut their way to Jelalabad, and were nearly destroyed. A fresh 
English force, in turn, destroyed Cabul ; but Afghanistan was 
abandoned. During this war, Scinde', a rich territory around the 
lower waters of the Indus, was annexed to British India by Sir 
Conquests Charles Napier. The Sikhs, living in the district 
in India. called the Punjab, north of Scinde, invaded the Brit- 

ish territories in 1845 '> an( ^ a war followed, which ended in the 
annexation of their country also to the British domain. These 
conquests secured to British India the whole peninsula of Hin- 



1852.] 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 



T 93 



dostan. In 1852 a war with Birmah resulted in the acquisition 
of Puge; and in 1856 the kingdom of Oude, long under 
British protection, was formally annexed, on the ground of 
extreme misgovernment. 




BRITISH INDIA. 



MAP OF INDIA. 



15. The English army in India is largely composed of sepoys, 
or native soldiers. Early in 1857 there were signs of a muti- 
nous spirit in the Bengal division, which was by far sepoy 
the largest, and contained many high-caste sepoys. rebellion - 
The government had resolved to arm the troops with Enfield 



1 94 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1857 

rifles, in the use of which greased cartridges were employed, 
A belief spread among the native troops that this was an 
attempt to make them give up their religion by compelling 
them to bite the fat of swine and cows : the use of the former 
being defilement to the Mohammedan ; and of the latter, sacri- 
lege to the Hindoo. Although the old cartridges were still 
used, the greatest excitement prevailed, and the discontent 
spread like wildfire. 

16. The first outbreaks were quelled; but in May several 
regiments mutinied at Meerut, killed their English officers, and 

marched to Delhi, where the garrison joined them. 

Delhi, 

Cawnpore, The Europeans were massacred, and Delhi became 
and Luck- t ne rallying-point of the rebellion. Several thou- 
sand sepoys also revolted at Cawnpore, and placed 
themselves under the Nana-Sahib. Few native regiments could 
be trusted ; and the European troops were too few to check 
the mutiny, which now spread with frightful rapidity. The 
scenes at Delhi were repeated at Benares, Allahabad, Futteh- 
poor, and all over Oude, where many Bengal sepoys had been 
recruited. The rebels gradually gathered around Lucknow, 
and began to besiege the Europeans there about July 1 . 

17. The first movements of the English were against Delhi. 
The memorable siege of this city lasted from June till Septem- 
Memorable ber, and it was taken only after the most desperate 
sieges. fighting within as well as without the walls. Mean- 
time Gen. Havelock moved with a small force from Allahabad 
towards Cawnpore, where a few English were besieged by the 
Nana-Sahib, who, on the approach of Havelock, murdered 
them all with horrible atrocities. He, after defeating the Nana 
in several battles, marched to relieve Lucknow, where a garrison 
of less than a thousand was holding out against ten thousand 
rebels. He fought his way into the city with dreadful loss, and 
staid with the besieged until November, when Sir Colin Camp- 
bell relieved them, and withdrew his troops to Cawnpore, which, 
after a great battle with the Nana-Sahib, was made a centre of 



1859.] 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 



95 



operations against Oude. Troops had now arrived from Eng- 
land, and the rebels were followed up with great vigor. Early 
in 1859 the revolt was at an end. The horrible outrages on 
men, women, and children, and the relentless punishment of 
their perpetrators, have no parallel in modern history. One of 
the most important results of the mutiny was the transfer by 
Parliament of the government of India from the East-India 
Company to the British Queen, the company remaining simply 
a commercial corporation. 




SKETCH MAP 
F 

O EASTERN CHINA 

AND "VICINITY . 



MAP OF CHINA. 



18. The principal military operations of the British with 
China, in the present reign, have originated mainly in commer- 
cial difficulties. The importation of opium was warwith 
forbidden by the Chinese Government ; but English China - 
merchants smuggled the drug over the frontier. Its seizure led 
to a war, by which China was compelled (1842) to cede Hong 



i 9 6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1857 

Kong, and, pay twenty-one million dollars to Great Britain, and 
to open five seaports to British commerce. In 1857 the 
Chinese were charged with having broken their treaties ; but it 
Was not until the sepoy rebellion in India was quelled,, that, 
some massacres having occurred in Chinese waters, France and 
England formed an alliance against the aggressors. They 
captured Canton, and negotiations were begun; but in 1859 
the war was renewed. The allies were at first repulsed on the 
Pei Ho River ; but the next year the forts and Tien-tsin were 
taken ; and the Chinese, being defeated near Pekin, came to 
terms, and this inglorious war was ended by a commercial 
treaty. 

19. Since the time of Napoleon, a compact has existed 
among the five great powers of Europe — England, France, 
The balance Prussia, Russia, and Austria — to preserve what is 
of power. called the balance of power ; that is, ostensibly to 
protect the smaller states against the encroachments of the 
larger ones, and to prevent any one state or sovereign from 
exercising an undue influence in the affairs of other states. In 
pursuance of this policy, England has twice, during the present 
reign, been drawn into collision with the Eastern powers. 

20. In 1840 Mehemet-Ali {Mdhemet Ah 'le) , Pacha or Vice- 
roy of Egypt, revolted against the Turkish Government, and also 
Rebellion in attempted, with some success, to get possession of 
Egypt- Syria. France remained neutral upon the subject, 
but was suspected of sympathizing with Mehemet, either Tot 
the purpose of placing him upon the Turkish throne, to which 
Abdul-Medjid had just succeeded at the age of seventeen 
years, or to lessen Turkish influence by making Egypt and 
Syria an independent kingdom. The other allies interfered. 
A fleet, under the command of Sir Charles Napier, soon cap- 
tured Acre, the key of Syria, and Beyroot, and then made its 
appearance in the harbor of Alexandria. A treaty soon followed 
with Mehemet, making the viceroyalty of Egypt hereditary in 
his family ; since which Egypt has been, in all respects except 
the name, an independent state. 



iS 5 3-J 



THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 



97 



21. The other interference in the affairs of the Eastern 
powers was in the Crimean war, which began in 1853. Russia 
had demanded to be named protector of the Greek The Crimean 
Christians in the Turkish Empire. By the advice war - 
of England and France, this demand was refused ; and the 




TO ILLUSTRATE CRIMEAN WAR. GREECE IN 1827, AND THE ALLIED FLEET AT 
ALEXANDRIA IN 1840. 

Czar at once occupied the Danubian principalities where these 
Christians lived. The Russians, failing to take Silistria, were 
defeated on the Danube, and withdrew from Turkish terri- 
tory. Meantime the allied fleets blockaded the Russian fleet 
in the harbor of Sebastopol, in the Crimea ; and the reduction 



198 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1856. 

of this strongly-fortified city became the main purpose of the 
allies, whom Sardinia now joined. In the course of this siege 
were fought the battles of Alma, of Balaklava (where the 
" six hundred " made their famous charge), of Inkerman, and 
of the Tchernaya ; and furious assaults were made on the 
Russian works, especially upon the battery of the Malakoff, 
which was captured by the French, and that of the Redan, 
upon which an attempt of the English failed. After sustaining 
a siege of eleven months, Sebastopol was evacuated Sept. 9, 
1855, and a treaty of peace was signed in the following year. 
Among other conditions, Russia gave up her claim to protect 
the Christians in the Turkish Empire, and agreed to limit 
her naval power on the Black Sea. This last condition was 
quietly set aside some years later when France was involved 
in war with Germany. The losses to all parties in this war 
were immense. The allies suffered terribly from disease ; 
and it was by her efforts to improve the hospital service, and 
relieve the want of the soldiers in the Crimea, that Florence 
Nightingale became so famous. She visited hospital and 
camp, and like an angel of mercy, everywhere ministered to 
the sick, the wounded and the dying ; one old soldier remark- 
ing, that, owing to the large number in the hospital, all could 
not be spoken to or receive a recognition from her, "yet," 
said he, " we could kiss her shadow as it fell, and lay our 
heads on our pillows content." 

22. Among the public enactments and leading measures 
of Victoria's reign, there are some which reflect great credit 
Reform upon the government and leading statesmen by 

measures. whom they were initiated and carried out. In 
1840 the penny-postage bill was passed, reducing the rates on 
letters, which had previously been very high, to one penny 
for all distances, and establishing also the money-order sys- 
tem. This measure was at once felt to be a public conven- 
ience in business and social life, and a relief from a heavy 
tax on correspondence. 



i867.h THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 199 

The factory system, following the great inventions in machin- 
ery in the eighteenth century (p. 181), had brought with it many 
evils : long hours, child labor, and unhealthy con- Factory 
ditions of work. Little children, eight, and some reforms, 
even six years of age, were kept at work from twelve to four- 
teen hours a day in poorly ventilated cotton factories, subject 
to further danger from unprotected machinery. The condi- 
tions in the mines were even worse. " Little girls of six and 
seven years of age made ten to twelve trips a day up the steep 
ladders to the surface, carrying half a hundred weight of coal 
in wooden buckets on their backs at each journey." Women 
drew cars of coal along passage-ways less than three feet 
high. A long series of reform acts extending over the nine- 
teenth century, but especially numerous since 1840, have 
resulted in the total exclusion of young children from working 
in factories, in shortening the hours of labor, and in the intro- 
duction of numerous appliances for the safety of the workmen. 

In 1866 a proposal to extend the right to vote had been 
discussed in Parliament, but the measure had been dropped 
and the ministry defeated. The working classes Parliamen . 
outside of Parliament, however, began such an tary reform 
agitation that Disraeli, the Conservative leader in l 7 ' 
the new House of Commons, brought in a new bill which, 
after many amendments of a democratic character, became a 
law. The qualifications for voting were considerably reduced, 
chiefly in the towns, so that the working classes obtained a 
voice in the management of national affairs. In 1868 similar 
changes were made for Scotland and Ireland. Two other 
acts should be noticed in connection with this reform. In 
1870 an Education Act was passed to increase the number 
of elementary schools, thus making it possible (in 1876 it 
became compulsory), for every child to be taught the ele- 
ments of a common school education. In 1872 the Ballot 
Act, which provided for a secret ballot while voting, served 
to protect the workingman who voted contrary to the wishes 
or interests of his employer. 



2o6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1870. 

23. Although the Conservative party had passed the reform 
act, the first Parliament elected under it contained a Liberal 
„, , maioritv, and William Ewarts Gladstone became 

Gladstone J J ' . 

Prime Min- Prime Minister. Already nearly thirty years in 
ister. public life, he had won distinction for his grasp of 

financial problems, and for over twenty years he was the fore- 
most man in English political life. One of the first acts of 
his ministry was to pass a bill disestablishing the Protestant 
church in Ireland. The Established Church was supported 
by public taxes, although a large majority of the Irish were 
Catholics. The law, though violently opposed, went into 
effect in 1870, and the support of religion is now a voluntary 
matter among all sects. 

Gladstone then turned his attention to the Irish land ques- 
tion. A large part of the land in Ireland was owned by 
Englishmen who remained away from the country and left 
the management of their estates to middlemen. As agricul- 
ture was the chief occupation of the people, competition for 
farms was strong, and rents were high. Moreover, improve- 
ments were made at the tenant's expense, and in many cases 
he might be turned out on six months' notice. Many tenants 
were years behind with their rent, and evictions were fre- 
quent. The land act of 1870 provided that, under certain 
conditions, the landlord must compensate the tenant for im- 
provements made by him, and must make a payment to the 
tenant if he was turned out of his farm for any reason except 
non-payment of rent. But little good, however, was accom- 
plished. 

A feeling was growing up that the government was push- 
ing reform too fast ; and the management of foreign affairs 
Geneva still further lessened its popularity. Russia's 

Award. refusal to submit any longer to the restrictions 

imposed upon her naval power in the Black Sea (p. 198) 
had met with no real resistance by the English government, 
and the award of the Geneva Tribunal was thought to be very 
excessive. During the Civil War in the United States, 



1878.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 201 

American commerce suffered extensively from privateers 
built and fitted out in English ports. At the close of the 
war the United States government claimed of Great Britain 
damages for these depredations, on the ground that no efforts 
were made to prevent the privateers leaving British ports. 
These claims were known as the Alabama Claims, from the 
name of one of the privateers. After some negotiations at 
Washington between the two governments, the matter was 
referred to a board of arbitration composed of representatives 
from five different nations ; viz., the United States, Great 
Britain, Italy, Brazil, and Switzerland. This board met at 
Geneva in 1872 and awarded to the United States the sum 
of fifteen million dollars, which was promptly paid by the 
British Government. 

24. In 1874 the Gladstone ministry came to an end, and 
the Conservative party, under Mr. Disraeli (later, Lord Bea- 
Di raeii consfield) held office for six years. Its greatest 

Prime activity was in foreign affairs. The atrocities of 

the Turkish government led, in 1878, to a war 
with Russia, whose success threatened the existence of the 
Turkish empire in Europe. England prepared to take an 
active part when Russia concluded a treaty with the Turks. 
The results were not satisfactory to England, and, after a 
period of great excitement bordering upon war, a congress 
of all the powers was held at Berlin. By a secret treaty, 
made a few weeks prior to the meeting of the Congress, 
England had received the island of Cyprus from Turkey, in 
return guaranteeing to protect the Turkish possessions in 
Asia. Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro were made in- 
dependent of Turkish rule ; and Bulgaria, which Russia had 
aimed to bring under her influence, was reduced in size by 
setting off a portion south of the Balkan mountains, known 
as East Roumelia. Bulgaria, thus reduced, became a self-gov- 
erning principality under the suzerainty of the Sultan. Rus- 
sia was thus checked in her attempt to secure a hold in the 



202 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



[1880. 



Balkan peninsula, but retaliated by stirring up trouble in 
Afghanistan, thus threatening England's Indian possession. 
The outbreak was finally put down by the efforts of General 
Roberts, whose famous inarch to Kandahar entirely dis- 
persed the Afghan army. 

In South Africa the government's aggressive policy was 
also shown. The original settlements had been made by the 
Dutch, but had passed under English control. 
Many of the Dutch farmers, disliking the Eng- 
glish government, had migrated or " trekked " 
into the interior, finally establishing the two independent re- 
publics, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. To 
secure better protection against the natives, the English gov- 



South 
African 
troubles 




CAPKTOW^, 
Cape of Good Hqja 



ttfstown 4 
\ 



MAP 

OF 

SOUTHERN 

AFRICA 



eminent had attempted to form a confederation and had an- 
nexed the Transvaal. Not only was an unwilling people 
thus brought under English control, but England became in- 
volved in a war with the fierce native tribe of Zulus, which, 
after some reverses, was brought to a successful close by the 
victory at Ulundi. The hostility of the Boers, as the native 
Dutch were called, still remained, and finally in December, 
1880, broke out into open revolt. The English met with sev- 



1 88 1.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 203 

eral defeats, notably at Majuba Hill in February, 1881 ; and 
Gladstone, who had just come into power again, not desiring 
to insist on further control, granted the Boers full self-govern- 
ment with- a vague reservation of English suzerainty in for- 
eign relations. 

The imperial policy of the Beaconsfield ministry had led to 
interference in the affairs of Egypt. In 1875 Disraeli had 
startled the world by the sudden announcement 
that the English government had purchased the gypt ' 
shares of the Khedive, or ruler of Egypt, in the Suez Canal, 
thus checking any possible attempt of France to control a 
waterway of such importance to England's Indian possessions. 
The extravagance of the Khedive at last led to his deposition 
and the establishment of a government under the joint control 
of France and England. In 1882, however, an uprising of the 
natives under Arabi Pasha had, by the withdrawal of France, 
been put down by England alone. At the same time came 
news of a rebellion in the Soudan province, under a religious 
leader known as the Mahdi. The Gladstone ministry made 
• a feeble attempt to withdraw the English garrison at Khar- 
toum. The expedition was a failure, the garrison was mas- 
sacred, and Gen. Gordon was killed. 

Not until 1898 was English authority in the Soudan prov- 
ince firmly established, through the efforts of a joint English 
and Egyptian force under Sir Herbert Kitchener. 

25. The Act of 1870 had failed to relieve the distressed 
condition of the Irish peasantry. They were still largely in 
arrears of rent ; and evictions, followed in retali- i ris h land 
ation by murders, and other crimes were common, question. 
In 1879 the evictions numbered 2,267. In 1880 the Liberal 
party under Gladstone had come into power, and, while 
repressing crime in Ireland with severe measures, sought to 
afford some relief to the peasantry. 

The Act of 1 88 1 adopted substantially the demands of the 
Irish Land League : fair rent, fixity of tenure, free sale. A 



204 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1885. 

Land Court was established in Ireland to fix the rent at the 
The three request of either tenant or landlord ; the rent, 
F ' s - when thus determined, is to remain for fifteen 

years ; and the tenant has the right to sell his holding to any 
solvent purchaser. 

26. The Irish representatives in Parliament had hitherto 
played an insignificant part. But about 1875 a new leader 
Home rule appeared. Charles Stuart Parnell, though a 
party. Protestant of English parentage, had been brought 
up in Ireland and was thoroughly devoted to the Irish cause. 
His policy in Parliament was, briefly, obstruction ; that is, all 
business was to be impeded by long speeches, motions to 
adjourn and other systematic devices, until the Irish question 
was settled. This new Home Rule Party, allied with the 
Irish Land League and aided financially by Irish patriots in 
America, now began a struggle with the English government. 
The House of Commons was compelled to adopt a new rule 
for closing debate, and the Government at length arrested 
Parnell and other leaders, and dissolved the Land League. 
In a few months, however, the leaders were released. A 
small, but very violent party, rejecting the policy of legal 
resistance, continued to resort to murder and dynamiting. 

27. The Reform Act of 1832 (p. 187) had extended the 
right to vote to the upper middle class. The Act of 1867 
Electoral bad largely increased the number of voters, par- 
reform act. ticularly in the boroughs. All parties felt that a 
further reform was needed to equalize the conditions in the 
boroughs and country districts. By the Acts of 1884-5, the 
number of members of the House of Commons was increased 
to six hundred and seventy, and the requirements for the 
right to vote in counties were reduced, admitting the agri- 
cultural laboring class. 

28. The Parliament elected in 1885 contained three 
hundred and thirty-three Liberals, two hundred and fifty- 



1 89 1.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 205 

one Conservatives, and eighty-six Irish Home Rulers. Par- 
nell's party thus held the balance of power. Soon after the 
results were known, Gladstone announced that G i adstone - s 
he favored the policy of granting Home Rule ; and conversion to 
on coming into office in 1886 immediately intro- ome 
duced, as his leading measure, a bill to establish Home Rule 
in Ireland by creating an Irish Parliament to sit in Dublin. 
This bill aroused the most violent opposition, not only in Eng- 
land, but also in the northern part of Ireland, where the Protest- 
ants, organized in secret lodges known as Orangemen, prepared 
to fight rather than submit to the rule of an Irish Parliament. 
Many of Mr. Gladstone's own party, the Liberal, refused to 
follow him, notably Mr. Chamberlain and Mr. Bright ; and 
the seceders became known as the Liberal-Unionists. After 
bitter discussion in the Commons and in the newspapers, the 
bill was defeated by a vote of 341 to 311. Gladstone dis- 
solved Parliament and appealed to the people. The result 
was an overwhelming defeat for his party : in the new Parlia- 
ment the opponents of Home Rule had a majority of over one 
hundred. The Gladstone ministry resigned and Lord Salis- 
bury, with a Conservative ministry supported by the Liberal- 
Unionists, governed for the next six years (1886-92). 

Although the Land Act of 188 1 (p. 203) had reduced rents 
about twenty-five per cent, it had not put an end to disorders. 
To meet these frequent outbreaks an act was passed by Parlia- 
ment dispensing, in certain cases, with juries and giving the 
authorities greater powers in dealing with disorders. On the 
other hand, the ministry sought to improve the condition of 
the Irish peasant. Earlier attempts to aid the tenants in 
buying their holdings had been partially successful, and in 
1 89 1 a general Land Purchase Act was passed. By the pro- 
visions of this act, if a landlord is willing to sell, the tenant 
may borrow of the Government the entire amount (which 
must not exceed twenty times, and in practice is only seven- 
teen times the annual rent) ; this loan he repays on easy 
terms : during each of the first five years he pays the Govern- 



206 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1897. 

merit \\ per cent of the purchase price, and for the next forty- 
four years, 4 per cent ; at the end of forty-nine years he is the 
absolute owner of his little farm. This act has worked very 
successfully, and riots and crimes growing out of the land 
question have almost ceased. 

During the years 188 6- 189 2 the Liberal party had been 
gradually regaining its lost ground, and in the general election 
of 1892 Gladstone once more came into power, but with a 
small majority (40). In February, 1893, he introduced a 
second Home Rule bill. Unlike the previous bill, it provided 
for Irish representation in the parliament of Great Britain, 
but without a vote on purely English or Scotch measures. 
The Irish Parliament was to consist of two Houses (the 
former bill had provided for one only). After long and 
bitter debate, the bill passed the House of Commons, 
but was defeated in the House of Lords by a vote of 419 
to 41. Soon after, Gladstone resigned and was succeeded 
by Lord Roseberry as Prime Minister. But in the 
Election of 1895 the Liberals were defeated, and Lord 
Salisbury again returned to power as the head of the Con- 
servatives. A split had occurred in the Irish party in Parlia- 
ment in 1 89 1, and a small majority had abandoned Mr. 
Parnell and chosen Mr. Justin McCarthy as leader. This 
division and Mr. Gladstone's retirement resulted in the aban- 
donment of Home Rule as an active political question. 

29. On June 22, 1897, Queen Victoria had ruled person- 
ally and continuously for sixty years, a longer period than 
The an y P revl0us sovereign. The occasion was very 

Diamond appropriately celebrated as a Diamond Jubilee. 
Congratulatory addresses were received from the 
rulers of all the civilized countries in the world, representa- 
tives were present from all parts of the British Empire and 
from many other countries, and special religious services 
were held at Windsor Castle, St. Paul's Cathedral, and 
Westminster Abbey. A grand procession on June 22, and 



i90i.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 207 

a magnificent military and naval display were among the 
most impressive of the public ceremonies. 

30. Some parts of British India are subject to famines, 
owing to the great variations in the amount of rainfall. In 
one district showers occur only at intervals of The Indian 
years, while on the mountains and highlands the Famine - 
annual rainfall is sometimes over 400 inches. The failure 
of the fall and winter rains in 1 899-1 900 caused one of the 
most destructive famines that have visited India under 
British rule. Nearly 50,000,000 people were affected, 6,000,- 
000 of whom were for weeks entirely dependent on govern- 
ment aid. Crops to the value of $250,000,000 were destroyed, 
and millions of cattle perished ; but the great exertions of 
the government prevented a corresponding loss of human 
beings. 

31. Australia, which, on account of its vast size, has been 
called a Continent, is the largest island in the world, having 
an area about equal to that of the United States, ^, 

. . The Aus- 

omitting Alaska and the insular possessions. Its traiian com- 
political divisions are: New South Wales, Victo- monwealth - 
ria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and 
Tasmania, an island with an area of more than 25,000 square 
miles, near the south coast of the continent. Some of these 
states were British penal colonies during the early part of 
the nineteenth century. 

After several years of deliberation and discussion of the 
subject of a union of the colonies, an Act of Parliament for 
that purpose was obtained, which went into effect January 1, 
1 90 1, on which date the Commonwealth of Australia was 
formally inaugurated, and the Earl of Hopetoun was ap- 
pointed Governor-General by the Queen. The first elections 
were held in April, and the Parliament was opened May 9th 
following, by the Duke of Cornwall and York, eldest son of 
Edward VII, 



208 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1900, 

The Constitution of the Commonwealth resembles some- 
what the type of that of the United States. The legislative 
body consists of a senate of six members from each state, 
elected by popular vote for a term of six years, and a house 
of representatives, apportioned according to population, 
elected in the same manner, for a term of not more than 
three years. The executive officer, called a Governor-Gen- 
eral, is appointed by the crown. 

32. The closing years of the nineteenth century witnessed 
a general scramble among the powers of Europe, first, for 
Th b xer concessions of territory on the coast of China, 
uprising in then for rights to build railroads and to develop 
mines. It was the " battle of concessions," as 
Lord Salisbury termed it. 

This practice occasioned, especially among the lower 
class of natives, a feeling of jealousy toward foreigners, and 
to the formation of an anti-foreign party — a party opposed 
to change and reform ; and as the Christians in the Empire 
are generally looked upon as favorable to reform, the party 
also became an anti-Christian party. With this party many 
native officials were well known to be in full and practical 
sympathy. 

The Emperor was completely under the power of the 
Dowager Empress, his aunt, who had been regent for many 
years, and whose well-known anti-foreign sympathies and 
practices were considered of no good omen to the peace of 
the empire. 

During the winter months of 1900 there was a general 
feeling of unrest and of approaching calamity in the country, 
and especially in northern China. A secret organization, 
called the Boxers, hostile to foreign influences in China, 
now became active with demonstrations of threatening and 
violence, and numerous Chinese Catholics, Protestant mis- 
sionaries, and native converts were brutally murdered. 

The foreign ministers protested, and sent a joint note to 



1 895.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 209 

the authorities, May 21, 1900, demanding the suppression of 
the Boxers and the attacks on foreign residents. Nominal 
compliance was made with these demands, but the orders 
given were so equivocal and contradictory, that they were 
never obeyed, and probably were never intended to be. 

The Boxer movement spread rapidly, and soon the Euro- 
peans in Peking were besieged in the legation quarter. An 
attempt was made by a force of allies, in June, to relieve 
them, but it was unsuccessful; and not until Aug. 14 did the 
rescuing army reach the Chinese capital. 

The Boxer uprising was quickly suppressed, and then be- 
gan a tedious period of negotiation by the European powers 
and Japan, with the Chinese commissioners, foremost of 
whom was Li Hung Chang. A heavy indemnity, later re- 
duced through the efforts of the United States, was imposed 
upon China ; the forts and other military obstacles between 
the sea and Peking were to be removed ; and provision was 
made for better defences for the legation in that city. The 
leaders of the Boxers were executed and other offenders suf- 
fered imprisonment or banishment. 

33. After the discovery of rich gold fields in the Trans- 
vaal, in 1884, there was a large immigration of foreigners of 
different nationalities who became locally known South 
as Uitlanders (outsiders). Johannesburg soon African 
became the center of the gold fields and of a war * 
large population, numbering in the neighborhood of 100,000, 
the greater part of whom were deprived of the right to vote, 
although they were heavily taxed for public purposes. The 
Uitlanders clamored for reform and equal rights. The Boers 
declared that the immediate enfranchisement of all the 
Uitlanders would swamp the present voters and might result 
in a complete change of government. 

In the closing weeks of 1895 an event occurred that 
added greatly to the excitement and uneasiness in the South 
African Republic. Dr. Jameson, an administrator of the 



2io HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1899. 

" South African Company," an organization formed by Cecil 
Rhodes and chartered by the British government for com- 
mercial purposes, collected and armed a body of about 700 
men, and upon an invitation of a body of Uitlanders known 
as the National Union of Reformers, marched from British 
Bechuanaland, a protectorate on the west, into the Transvaal 
towards Johannesburg. President Kruger immediately gave 
orders, from Pretoria, for them to be stopped by force of 
arms. Dr. Jameson, after losing many of his men and find- 
ing himself surrounded by the Boers, surrendered January 
2d, and the raiders were marched off to prison. 

Some of the leaders were tried in England for high trea- 
son, and four were sentenced to death, the sentence being 
afterwards changed to a heavy fine. Dr. Jameson and his 
companions were sentenced to imprisonment for some 15 
months, others for a less time. Many of the Reform Com- 
mittee were tried, at Pretoria, for expressed sympathy with 
the raid, and released only upon payment of fines. 

The raid did not put an end to the expression of griev- 
ances of the Reform party, nor to the annoyance and trouble 
of the British government, in their attempts to find a remedy 
for these grievances. The withholding of the right to vote 
from the Uitlanders finally led to a crisis. After a tiresome 
consideration and rejection of various propositions by each 
party, the South African government submitted an ultima- 
tum, Oct. 9, 1899. The reply of the British Government 
was, " The conditions of the ultimatum were such that they 
could not be discussed." 

War ensued at once, beginning with the seizure, Oct. 11, 
of a railway train by the Boer forces, and the next day the 
British colony of Natal, on the southeast coast was invaded. 
In 1897 President Kruger of the Transvaal, and President 
Steyn of the Orange Free State, had made a treaty by which 
it was agreed that the two states should assist each other, 
in case either was attacked. Accordingly, the Orange 
Free State cast in its lot at once with the Transvaal, and 



1902.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 211 

joined in the first important act of the war, the invasion of 
Natal. 

The English Government was not prepared for actual 
war, and greatly underestimated the strength and fighting 
qualities of the Boers. The disasters of the early months 
of the war, however, brought forward the needed com- 
manders, notably Lord Roberts as field-marshal and Lord 
Kitchener. The colonies, especially Canada and Australia, 
-esponded most loyally. In spite of losses in battle, and 
especially by diseases, the British overran and annexed the 
Orange Free State and captured Johannesburg and Pretoria. 
The Boers then developed under General De Wet, the 
" Fox," their remarkable guerilla warfare, which the British 
met with their system of block-houses and concentration 
camps. 

The Boers' hopes of foreign intervention were not realized, 
and President McKinley's tender of the friendly offices of 
the United States was refused by the English Government. 
In April, 1902, consideration of terms of peace began, and 
the war ended on May 31, 1902, after a duration of two 
years and eight months. The principal conditions were as 
follows : — 

The complete supremacy of the English Government is 
acknowledged. 

Military government is to be withdrawn as soon as possi- 
ble, and self-government substituted. 

There is to be no tax on the Transvaal to pay the cost of 
the war, and England gives fifteen million dollars towards 
restocking the Boer farms. 

Very fair treatment is accorded the Boer prisoners and to 
the rebels of other South African colonies. 

Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the return of 
peace is the general feeling of good-will by the former 
combatants towards each other, and the disposition on the 
part of the Boers to become good subjects of the British 
Empire. 



212 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1902. 

At the beginning of the War President Kruger had de- 
clared that the Boers would be subdued only at a cost which 
would " stagger humanity." The number of troops sent to 
South Africa by England exceeded 300,000, and the war 
cost in money nearly $900,000,000. The British lost by 
death in Africa, however, less than 20,000, while 60,000 
more were sent home invalids from wounds or disease. 

34. On Tuesday, Jan. 22, 1901, the Queen died, at the 
age of eighty-one years. Victoria will be known in history 
Death of as the " Good Queen." She was a woman of 
Victoria. great ability and loveliness of character, joined to 

a marked firmness of purpose. During her long reign of 
sixty-three years and seven months she had seen fifteen 
successive parliaments elected, and had been advised by 
twenty different ministries. She had seen in office ten Prime 
ministers, five Archbishops of Canterbury, and six of York, 
and several changes in every Bishopric. 

Parliament was hastily summoned on January 23, to take 

the oath of allegiance to the new sovereign, Edward VII. 1 

On February 1 4 the King opened the regular ses- 

Accession J ^ or o 

of sion of Parliament, riding to Westminster in the 

Edward vii. state carr i a g e built in 1 76 1. The new King was 
a great popular favorite, and had shown great tact in the 
performance of the many social duties that had devolved 
upon him as Prince of Wales. 

The coronation ceremonies were arranged for June 26, 
1902 ; but a few days before that date the whole world was 
startled by the news that the King's critical illness made a 
postponement necessary. A successful operation, however, 
soon allayed the people's fears, and on August 9, the King 
was crowned in Westminster Abbey by the venerable Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. 

1 " The official title of the king is, Edward VII, by the grace of God, of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the seas, 
King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India." 



1902.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 213 

35. On September 18, 19, and 20, 1901, the one thous- 
andth anniversary of the death of King Alfred (p. 22) was 
commemorated in the famous old city of Win- ^ L „. 

■> The King 

Chester. Lectures and addresses were delivered Alfred 
by notables of church and state, and an ideal Millenar y- 
statue of Alfred, holding aloft an inverted sword suggesting 
a cross, was unveiled by Lord Roseberry, who delivered an 
able address. Alfred was characterized as the " highest 
type of kingship, the highest type of Englishman, and a 
complete man." 

36. The reign of Victoria, covering nearly two-thirds 
of the nineteenth century, the age of steel and electric- 
ity, is notable for the remarkable progress in all 

lines of work, political, social, and economic. In 
the industrial world, England has taken a leading part, while 
her supremacy in the merchant marine is unquestioned. 
The population of Great Britain and Ireland has increased 
to 41,000,000 (p. 185), while that of the entire Empire num- 
bers nearly 400,000,000. By the extension of the right to 
vote by legislative acts of 1867 and 1884, the government of 
England has become practically a democracy ; while her 
relations with the dependencies "beyond the seas," in a 
critical condition in 1837 (p. 192) have been put on a satis- 
factory and stable basis, as was shown by their loyalty in the 
recent South African War. Realizing the importance of 
popular education to industrial supremacy, the present Prime 
Minister, Mr. Balfour, who succeeded Lord Salisbury in 
1902, has recently carried through Parliament a new Edu- 
cational Act, increasing government aid to the schools, from 
which great benefits are expected ; while the results of the 
late Cecil Rhodes' bequest for scholarships in English uni- 
versities for American students of proven ability, will be 
watched with great interest for its influence on the life and 
thought of both English and American students. 

During the reign of Victoria many names have been added 



214 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



[1903. 



to the already long list of eminent writers and thinkers : 
Tennyson, Browning, and Morris in poetry ; Macaulay, 
Lingard, Dickens, Thackeray, George Eliot, Ruskin, Car- 
lyle, and Stevenson in imaginative and descriptive prose ; 
and Huxley, Darwin, and Spencer in science. 

Finally, not least among the achievements of the " Good 
Queen's " reign is the better feeling between the people of 
the United States and of England, a result in large measure 
due to her personal influence and example. 

In 1903, after long conference between the Irish leaders, 
the landlords, and the Government, a new Land Act was 
passed, by which, through the aid of the Gov- 



Irish 



Land Act. ernment, the occupiers will ultimately become 
the owners of their lands. On all sides this act is conceded 
to end the Irish land question. 




PARLIAMENT HOUSE 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 215 



A. — Topics for Outside Reading. 

1. Development of cabinet government under Sir Robert 

Walpole. 

Gardiner, III., 712-18. Montague, 163-73. "Bur- 
lesque on Walpole," Colby, No. 90. See Gardiner, III., 
733-6, for illustrations of election scenes. For parliamentary 
corruption common during the 18th century, Kendall, No. 
105. 

2. The struggle for colonial possessions in America and 

India. 

Gardiner, III., 747-56, 766 (America), 758-64 (India). 
Green, 745-57 (on Pitt, 748-53). Colby, No. 94 (Plassey), 
95 (Wolfe at Quebec), 96 (Pitt). Creighton, "Stories," 
XLVIII. (Clive). Kendall, Nos. 117, 118. 

3. George Ill's attempt to re-establish personal government : 

opposition of the old Whigs, of John Wilkes, and of the 
American colonies. 

Gardiner, III., 767-83, 799-801, 806-8. Green, 761-78, 
788-91. Montague, 174-84. Colby, No. 97 (Wilkes and 
the "North Briton"), No. 99 (Burke on conciliation with 
America). Kendall, Nos. 107, 119, 120, 121. Coman 
and Bates, 363-5. 

4. The industrial revolution of the 18th century. 

Gardiner, III., 813-18. Green, 791-2. Creighton, 
" Social History," Ch. VIII. Montague, 191— 3. Cheyney, 
" Industrial and Social History." 

5. England and the French Revolution. 

Gardiner, III., 819-23, 824-29. Green, 798-806. 
Kendall, No. 123 (Burke on the Revolution), No. 124 
(Birmingham riots), No. 125 (Fox). Colby, No. 104. 



2i6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

6. England after the struggle with Napoleon : economic dis- 

tress ; renewed demands for reform. 

Gardiner, III., 875-80, 884-90. Creighton, " Social 
History," 119-24. Colby, No. 1 13 (" Peterloo"). 

7. Catholic emancipation and Daniel O'Connell. 

Kendall, No. 128. Colby, No. 115. Gardiner, III., 
894-6. Montague, 195-8. 

8. Parliamentary reform : the act of 1832. 

McCarthy, " Epoch of Reform." Montague, 203-8. 
Gardiner, III., 900-5. Colby, Nos. 116, 117. Kendall* 
Nos. 129, 130. 

9. The Canadian rebellion, 1837. 

McCarthy, " Our Own Times," I., 36-43, 56-7. Gardi- 
ner, III., 914-6, 967. 

10. Chartism. 

McCarthy, " Our Own Times," I., 78-88, 292-302 ; 
" Epoch of Reform," 188-91. Gardiner, III., 922-4, 934-6. 
Kendall, No. 131. Coman and Bates, 396-400. 

11. Factory and mine reforms. 

Cheyney, " Industrial and Social History." Gardiner, 
III., 911, 927. McCarthy, "Epoch of Reform," 91-4. 
Creighton, " Social England," 124, 129. Kendall, No. 
134. Coman and Bates, 400. 

12. Repeal of the corn laws. 

McCarthy, « Our Own Times," I., Chs. XIV., XV., 270-3 ; 
"Epoch of Reform," Ch. XII. Gardiner, III., 875,924, 
930-1. Kendall, Nos. 135-7. Coman and Bates, 406. 

13. The Crimean War, 1854-6. 

McCarthy, "Our Own Times," I., 435-61, 474-504, 
514-24. Gardiner, III., 943-^8. Kendall, Nos. 140-2. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 217 

14. The reform act of 1867. 

McCarthy, "Our Own Times," II., Ch. LII. Gardi- 
ner, III., 961. Montague, 208-10. 

15. The Congress of Berlin and the Eastern question. 

McCarthy, " Our Own Times," II., Chs. LXIV., LXV. 

16. The English in Egypt. 

McCarthy, "Our Own Times," III., Ch. VI., 134-5. 
Kendall, No. 149. 

17. Irish affairs. 

McCarthy, II., Ch. LVII., 469 (Irish Church), 471-9; 
III., 59-60 (Land Act of 1870), 63-73 (Parnell), 119-28 (Ob- 
struction in Parliament) ; Ch. X. (Gladstone's first Home 
Rule Bill, 1886) ; Ch. XII. (" Parnellism and Crime"), 286-95 
(the second Home Rule Bill, 1893). Kendall, Nos. 132, 
133- 

18. South African troubles. 

McCarthy, III., 360-73, Ch. XXIV. On Kitchener, see 
Kendall, No. 148. 

B. — Topics for Special Reports. 

1. The religious revival under the Methodists. 

Gardiner, III., 745-6. Kendall, No. 113. Colby, No. 
91. Green, 735-41. 

2. John Howard and prison reform. 

Green, 740. Colby, No. 100. 

3. Union of Great Britain and Ireland. 

Montague, 186-8. Gardiner, III., 831-4, 840-2. For 
a view of Ireland in the 18th century, read Kendall, No. hi. 

4. Write a paper on the career of each of the following : 

Pitt the Younger ; Burke ; Fox. 



218 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

5. The abolition of the slave trade and of slavery in the 

colonies. 

6. The new poor law of 1834. 

7. Postal reform. 

McCarthy, I., 63-70 ; " Epoch of Reform," 149-54. 

8. Rise of trade-unions. 

9. England and the Civil War in America. 

10. The reform act of 1884. 

Montague, 210. 

11. The Manchester ship canal. 

C — Map Work. 

1. The possessions of England, France, and Spain in North 

America (a) in 1750, (b) in 1763, (c) in 1783. 

2. Locate Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Plassey. 

3. Napoleon's empire at its greatest extent. Locate Trafal- 

gar, Waterloo. 

4. The British possessions in Africa, 1904. 

5. On an outline map of the world, color the territory com- 

prising the British Empire. 



THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT. 



The government of Great Britain is of that form usually known 
as a limited monarchy. The sovereign is hereditary; and, when 
there is no direct male heir, a female may succeed to the throne, 
and she takes the title of queen-regnant. The wife of a king is 
called queen-consort ; the widow of a king, queen-dowager ; and 
the mother of a sovereign upon the throne, queen-mother 

The power of the sovereign is limited by constitutional restric- 
tions. While the crown can declare war, the action of Parliament 
is necessary to raise money and men to carry it on. But the sov- 
ereign has full power to assemble or to dismiss Parliament, coin 
money (though not to fix or change its value), to receive and send 
ambassadors, to grant pardons, to confer titles of nobility, to ap- 
point judges and magistrates, to issue and cancel commissions in 
the army and navy, to sign or veto acts passed by Parliament, 
and to nominate bishops, &c. 

The power of the sovereign is not exercised personally, but 
through a ministry composed of leading officials, the most impor- 
tant of whom are the following : The first Lord of the Treasury, 
called also Premier or Prime-Minister; Chancellor of the Exche- 
quer ; Lord Chancellor ; President of the Council ; Lord Privy- 
Seal ; Home Secretary; Foreign Secretary; Secretary for the 
Colonies; Secretary of War; Secretary for India ; First Lord of 
the Admiralty; President of the Board of Trade; and President 
of the Board of Works. 

The ministry is responsible for the acts of the government; and 
hence the saying, that the king can do no wrong. The members 
of the ministry usually tender their resignations when any of their 
important measures fail to receive the support of the House oi 

219 



2 20 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Commons. When a new ministry is to be formed, the sovereign 
appoints the premier, and he names his associates. Although the 
ministry has long been regarded as an important branch of the gov. 
ernment in the administration of public affairs, it exists as the 
result of custom only, never having been created, nor recognized 
by law ; and no official record of its proceedings is kept. 

The legislative department of the government is called Parlia- 
ment, and is composed of two houses, — Lords and Commons. 

The House of Lords, or Peers, at present consists of nearly six 
hundred members, and is composed of English hereditary and 
titled peers, English archbishops and bishops, and Scotch and 
Irish peers elected by their own order. Peers, or lords, are often 
created by the sovereign for distinguished services, or merit. 

The House of Commons is elective, its members representing 
counties, cities, boroughs, and some of the universities. The 
present number of members is six hundred and seventy. 

About one-sixth of the population are electors. 

All bills for raising money, or which directly affect the people, 
must originate in the House of Commons. 

No Parliament can exist more than seven years ; and, whenever 
its dissolution takes place, a new one must be called within three 
years. 

Many of the colonies and other dependencies of the empire 
have parliaments of their own for the management of their local 
affairs. 

This is especially true of the Dominion of Canada and the 
Commonwealth of Australia. 



THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 



The combined area of the British Empire is estimated at more 
than eleven million square miles and its population three hundred 
and ninety-six millions. The following are some of the most im- 
portant of the States and dependencies that belong to it. 

IN EUROPE. 

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the 
adjacent islands, including the Shetlands, Hebrides, Orkneys, Scil- 
lies, Man, and the Isle of Wight. 

The Channel Islands, near the coast of France, comprising Jer- 
sey, Guernsey, &c, having been a part of the dominions of William 
the Conqueror. 

The town and fortress of Gibraltar, on the south extremity of 
Spain> Captured in 1704. 

Malta, an island naval station south of Sicily, with Gozo, a small 
island adjacent (taken from the French in 1800), and Cyprus. 

IN ASIA. 

British India with its dependencies ; among the most important 
British Provinces being Bengal, Bombay, Burma, N. W. 
Provinces, and Punjab ; also the Straits Settlements ; British 
North Borneo; Labuan; Ceylon; Hong Kong, obtained from 
the Chinese in 1843 I Aden, a commercial and naval station on the 
Gulf of Aden, obtained from Turkey in 1838 ; and Wei-hai-wei. 

IN AFRICA. 

Cape Colony, founded by the Dutch in 1652, ceded to Great 
Britain in 1814; Natal, including Province of Zululand ; Orange 
River Colony, before the Boer war known as Orange Free State ; 
the Transvaal, formerly the South African Republic, but annexed 
to the British crown in 1900; Nigeria; Rhodesia; and the four 

221 



222 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

West Africa Colonies, viz. : Gold Coast, Lagos, Gambia, and 
Sierra Leone ; the Islands of Mauritius, the Seychelles, St. 
Helena, Ascension, and other islands ; the Protectorates of 
Bechuanaland ; Central Africa ; East Africa ; Somaliland ; 
Uganda; and Zanzibar. 

AUSTRALIA, ETC., IN THE PACIFIC. 

The Commonwealth of Australia consisting of the six colonies 
of New South Wales ; Victoria ; Queensland ; South Aus- 
tralia ; Western Australia ; and Tasmania ; the Crown Colony 
of British New Guinea ; the Colony of New Zealand and the 
Crown Colony of Fiji. 

IN NORTH AMERICA. 

The Dominion of Canada composed of the following provinces : 
Ontario ; Quebec ; New Brunswick ; Nova Scotia ; Prince 
Edward's Island; Manitoba; British Columbia; and the 
North West Territories; also the Island of Newfoundland, 
with its dependency, Labrador; and the Bermuda Islands. 

IN THE WEST INDIES. 

The British West India possessions are in six groups: the 
Bahamas; Barbados; Jamaica with Turks Islands ; Leeward 
Islands ; Trinidad with Tobago ; and Windward Islands. 

IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 

British Guiana ; British Honduras ; and the Falkland Islands 

in the South Atlantic. 

The Norfolk, Chatham, and Fiji Islands, and some others in 
the Pacific Ocean, belong to Great Britain. 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 



PART I. — BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST (pp. 1-42), 
I. — Early Britain. 

Name, ancient and modern. 

People; their character, mode of life, and dwellings. Their 

government, wars, religion, and worship. 
Bards, festivals, and Druids. 
Origin of Britons. Civilization, mining, and trade. Language, 

The Gaels. 

II. ~ Roman Occupation. 

Caesar's first invasion and its incidents. 

Caesar's second invasion. Caswollon. Native kings. Cym- 
beline. 

Claudius. Caradoc. 

Suetonius, Mona, and Boadicea. 

Agricola. Picts and Scots. Roman walls. Benefits of Ro- 
man rule. 

Roads. Towns and their ruins. Mode of life. Habits. 
Mining. 

Christianity. Romans leave Britain. 

III. — Saxon Conquest. 

Raids by Picts and Scots. Saxon freebooters. 

Hengist and Horsa. Conquests. King Arthur. Saxons and 

Christianity. The Heptarchy. 
Kent and Ethelbert. Sussex. Wessex. Essex. Northumbria. 

East Anglia. Mercia. Egbert. 
The Saxons ; their government. The people. Religion, mode 

of life, and education. 

IV. — Saxon Kings, &c. 

Egbert. Danish raids. 

Alfred's reign and character. 

Edward the Elder. His contests with the Danes. The first 

king of all England. 
Athelstan. War with the Danes and others, 
Edmund. Hi« tragical death. 

323 



:24 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Edred. Subjugates the Danes and others. Strengthens the 

kingdom. Dunstan. 
Edwy. His marriage. Contest with Dunstan and Odo. 
Edgar. Peaceful reign. Protects commerce by a fleet. Tax 

upon Welsh nobles. His marriage. 
Ed-ward the Martyr. 
Ethelred II. A weak king. Danegeld. Massacre of the 

Danes. Sweyn. The Danes. Danish words. 

V. — Danish Kings. 

Canute and his reign. 
Harold I. 

Canute II. Saxon kings restored. 

Edward the Confessor. His history. Candidate for the 

throne. 
Godwin. Edward's reign. Godwin in disgrace. 
Harold, and William the Duke of Normandy. Edward's 

death and character. 
Harold II. King. Norwegian invasion. William oppose? 

Harold. Invades England. 
Battle of Hastings. Result. Its importance. 
Growth of the nation. Society. Slavery. 
Dwellings and furniture. Dress. 
Food, meals, amusements, and domestic life. Bayeux tapestry 

Agriculture, trader, commerce and traffic. 
Government. Trials in court. Religion. Schools. Bede 

Benedictine monks. Towns. Capitals. 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 

PART II. — FEUDAL PERIOD (pp. 45-91). 

I. — The Norman Family. 

William I. His coronation. State of the kingdom. His 
policy. Absence. Exeter and York. Revolts. The Danes. 
Disaster at York. Devastation of the country. Cruelty. 
Chester. Ely. Family troubles. New Forest. Doomsday 
book. Feudal System. William and the Church. Odo. 
Battle Abbey. William's last days, funeral, and character. 

William II. His character, reign, and death. 

Henry I. Norman and Saxon families united. Character. 

Stephen. Accession and reign. Wars. Social distress. 
Character. 

II. — The Plantagenet Family. 

Henry II. His dominions. Church and State. Councils of 
Clarendon. Thomas a Becket. Family troubles. Henry's 
character. The arts. The comforts of life. 

Richard I. and the Crusades. His character. 

John. Quarrel with the Pope. Magna Charta. John's 
character. 

Henry III. His reign and character. Popular freedom 
Leicester. 

Edward I. The Jews. Wales. War with Scotland. Wal- 
lace and Bruce. Edward's character and reign. 

Edward II. Bannockburn. Character and reign. Isabella 
and Mortimer. 

Edward III. Mortimer. War with the Scots and France. 
Cressy. The Black Prince. Philippa. Poictiers. Posses- 
sions lost. Edward's character and reign. Dukes. Pesti- 
lence. The English language. 

Richard II. His regents. Wat Tyler. War with Scotland 
and France. The king deposed. Wickliffe and Chaucer. 
Progress. Castles. The barons. The clergy. Cathedrals. 

225 



22 6 SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 

Church revenues. Friars. Miracle Plays. House of Com. 
mons. Education. Roger Bacon. Alchemy, &c. Lan, 
guage. Tournaments and chivalry. Trade and Commerce. 
Agriculture. Dwellings. Food. Dress. Villenage. 

III. — Branch of Lancaster. 

Henry IV. A usurper and persecutor. Character and reign. 

Prince Henry. 
Henry V. His reform. Oldcastle. France invaded. Har- 

fleur. Agincourt. Henry's character. Origin of the Tudors. 
Henry VI. His guardians. Joan of Arc. Margaret of 

Anjou. War of the Roses. 

IV.— Branch of York. 

Edward IV. Towton. The queen a fugitive. Warwick. 
Defeat of Margaret. Edward's character and conduct. Art 
of printing. 

Edward V. His fate. 

Richard III. A usurper. His character and acts. Bos- 
worth. Wars of the Roses. Their character and influencf 
The serfs. New colleges. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

OF ENGLISH AND LEADING CONTEMPORANEOUS SOVEREIGNS AND 

IMPORTANT EVENTS, 

From the Norman Family to the Tudor Family. 



A.D. 
IOOO. 66. William I. — Henry JV., Germany, 56. Pope Greg- 
ory VII. (Hildebrand), 73. Malcolm 
III., Scotland, 57. Booksellers first 
known. Surnames first used by nobil- 
ity. Tower of London built, 80. Papal 
power very great. 

87. William II. — Pope Urban II., Dancan II., Scotland. 

First Crusade, 96. Jerusalem taken by 
the Crusaders, 99. 

IIOO. Henry I. — Alexander I., David I., Scotland. 

Henry IV., Germany, died, 11 06. 
Knights Templar instituted. Writing- 
paper used. 

35. Stephen. — Conrad III, Germany, 38. Moscow 

built, 44. Second Crusade, 47. Mag- 
netic needle known in Italy. 

54. Henry II. — Frederick Barbarossa., Germany, 52. 

Malcolm IV., 53. William, 65. 
Scotland. Saladin. Genghis Khan, 76. 
Bank of Venice founded, 57. Bills of 
exchange used. 



22& 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A.D. 

1 100. 89. Richard I. — Pope Clement III, Henry VI. (the 

Cruel), Germany. Philip Augus- 
us, France. Papal power supreme. 
Third Crusade, 88. Richard defeats 
Saladin at Ascalon, 92. Jews the 
principal bankers of the world. 

99. John. — Pope Innocent III. Otho IV., 

Germany. Fourth Crusade. Afghan 
Empire founded. The Troubadours. 
Jerusalem taken by the Turks. 

1200. 16. Henry III.— Alexander II. and III, Scotland. 

Louis IX. (St. Louis), France. Coal 
discovered, 37. Astronomy and geog 
raphy revived by the Moors. 

72. Edward I.— John Baliol, Scotland, 92. Philip 

IV., France, 85. Marco Polo travels 
in the East. Parliaments at Paris, 
94. Spectacles invented, 99. Otto- 
man Empire founded, 99. Mariner's 
compass invented, 1302. 

I3OO. 7* Edward II. — Seat of the Papacy removed tc Avignon, 

8. William Tell. Dante died, 21. 
Swiss confederation established, 7. 
Knights Templar suppressed, 12. 

27. Edward III.— Philip VI, 28; Charles V., 64. 

France. Pope Innocent VI. Two 

hundred thousand Moors invade 

Spain. Fire-arms, 45. Gunpowder 

invented at Cologne, 40. Turks first 

enter Rome, 52. Tamerlane, 7a 

Great Plague in Europe, 47. 



77. Richard II. — Popes return to Rome. 

France, 80. 



Charles VI, 



99. Henry IV. — Solyman, Turkey. 

preme in Florence, 
discovered, 5. 



The Medici su- 
Canary Islands 



I4OO. 13. Henry V. — Sigismund, Germany. Paris taken by 

the English, 20. Madeira discovered. 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 229 

A.D. 
1400. 22. Henry VI. —Charles VII, France. James I. and 

II., Scotland. Joan of Arc. The 
Azores discovered, 32. Invention of 
printing, 36. Famine and plague in 
Paris, 38. Vatican Library founded, 
46. Wood-engraving. 

6l. Edward IV. — Louis XL, France. End of Tartar rule 

in Russia. Watches made at Nurem 
Der g> 77 • Copernicus born, j$. 

83. Edward V. — Charles VIIL, France. Pope Inno- 
cent VIII. 

83. Richard III. — Luther born. iEsop'3 Fables printed 

by Caxton. Cape of Good Hope 
discovered, 8>v 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 

PART III. CHAPTERS I.-IV. 
THE TUDOR AND THE STUART FAMILIES. 

Pages 97-157. 

I. — The Tudor Family. 

Henry VIL His title. Character of the Tudors. Pretend- 
ers. Henry's character. Useful reign. Feudal system. 
The navy. Spirit of adventure. Revival of learning. The 
Star Chamber. Origin of the Stuarts. 

Henry VIII. Prospects and disappointment. Henry's real 
character. Foreign wars. Flodden. The Reformation. 
Defender of the Faith. Wolsey. Matrimonial troubles. 
More. Quarrel with the Papacy. A persecutor. More 
matrimonial troubles. Henry in history. Important events 
and persons. 

Edward VI. His character and reign. Lady Jane Grey. 

Mary. Her early life ; marriage ; religion ; character ; policy. 
Persecutions. Loss of Calais. Mary's death. Her treat- 
ment in history. 

Elizabeth. Offers of marriage. Character of her reign. 
Acts of supremacy and uniformity. Mary, Queen of Scots ; 
her career. Spanish Armada. Eminent statesmen. Earl 
of Essex. Elizabeth's last days. Her character, public and 
private. Important events. 

Mode of Life and State of Society. Political events. 
The Reformation. Trade, commerce, and adventure. Man- 
ufactures and agriculture. Labor of women. Condition of 
the people. Dwellings and furniture. Style of living. 
Feasting and food. Dress and personal appearance. 
Amusements. Weddings. Education. 

II. — The Stuart Family. 

James I. Character of the Stuarts. A conspiracy. Raleigh. 
Gunpowder Plot. Dissenters. English Bible. American 

230 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 231 

colonies. The Puritans ; New England. James's associates 
and counsellors. James as a ruler ; spirit of liberty. James's 
death and family ; person and character. Important events 
and persons. 
Charles I. State of the kingdom. Arbitrary measures of the 
king. Ship-money. John Hampden. Petition of Rights. 
Strafford and Laud ; opposition to Episcopacy. The King 
and Parliament. Bold measures; civil war and its parties; 
leaders. Edgehill. Charles at Oxford. Foreign aid. Death 
of Hampden. Newbury. Alliance with the Scots. League 
and Covenant. Re-enforcements. Marston Moor. The army. 
Naseby. End of the war. Charles with the Scots ; his 
ransom ; a prisoner. His trial, execution, and death. Feel- 
ings of the nation. Charles's character and abilities ; oppo- 
nents; family. Artists. Westminster Assembly. Roger 
Williams. Posts. 

III. — The Commonwealth. 

Cromwell. Change of government. The army in power. 
State of Ireland. Cromwell's campaign. Places taken ; 
castles. Prince Charles and the Scots. Dunbar. Worces- 
ter. Charles II. a fugitive. War with Holland; naval bat- 
tles. Cromwell and Long Parliament. Protector. Little 
Parliament. Cromwell's administration ; affliction and 
death ; abilities and career ; place in history ; private char- 
acter. Richard Cromwell. The Restoration. 

IV. — The Stuarts Restored. 

Charles II. His accession. Public sentiment. Charles's 
prodigality. Fire and plague. Dissatisfaction. Duke of 
York. Habeas Corpus. Plots. Character of court and 
nation. Distinguished men. Learned societies. 

James II. His character. Monmouth and Jeffries. 

The Revolution of 1688. 

William III. and Mary. The navy. Principles established. 
Passive obedience. Opposition to William III. His char- 
acter. The bank of England. 

Progress of the century : increase of wealth ; trade and com- 
merce ; glass ; newspapers ; art ; population. London. 

Anne. War of the Spanish succession; battles. Constitu- 
tional union. Anne's character. Marlborough. Eminent 
persons. Party names. The Stuart family. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

OF ENGLISH AND LEADING CONTEMPORANEOUS SOVEREIGNS AND 

IMPORTANT EVENTS. 

Houses of Tudor and Stuart, 1485-1714. 



A.D. 

1400. 85. Henry VII. — Charles VIII., France, 83-98. 

Louis XII., France. Freder- 
ick III., Germany, 93. Pope 
Alexander VI., 92. Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella, Spain, 74. 
Map of the world published at 
Nuremberg, 90. America dis- 
covered, 92. Diet at Worms, 95. 

1500. 9. Henry VIII.— Francis I., France, 15. Charles 

V, Germany, 19-56. Popes, — 
Leo X., 21; Clement VII.; 
Paul III. Gustavus Vasa, 

Sweden, 28. St. Peter's Church 
begun, 13. Council of Trent, 45. 
Albert Durer. Loyola. Michael 
Angelo. Raphael. Cortez. 

47. Edward VI. — Henry II., France, husband of 

Catherine de Medici, 47-59. 
Orange-trees brought to Europe. 

53. Mary. — Philip II., Spain, 55-98. Pope 

Paul IV. 

58. Elizabeth. — Francis II., France, husband of 

Mary, Queen of Scots, 59. 
Charles IX. Henry IV. 
Popes Pius V., Gregory 
XIII, Clement VIII. James 
VI., Scotland, 67. Only two 
carriages in Paris. Republic of 
Holland, 79. Kepler. Decimals 
invented, 2. 
232 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 233 

A.D. 

1600. 3- James I.— Louis XIII.', France, 10-43. Pope 

Paul V. Douai or Catholic 
version of the Bible published. 
9. Virginia settled, 7. Ncv. 
York, 14. Massachusetts, 20. 
Maine, New Hampshire, 23. 

25. Charles I. — Ferdinand II., Germany, 19-37. 

Pope Urban VII. Salem, 
Boston, and Rhode Island settled. 
Harvard College founded, 38. 
Conde. Turenne. 

49. The Common- 
wealth. — Louis XIV., France, 1643-1715. 
Leopold I., Germany. Pope 
Alexander VII. Air - pump 
invented. 400,000 people died of 
the plague at Naples in six 
months. Fenelon. 

60, Charles II.— Louis XIV. Pope Innocent 

XI. Bombay taken by the Eng- 
lish. Steam-engine invented, 
63. Bees introduced into New 
England, 70. Mississippi dis- 
covered, 73. King Philip's 
war, 75. Great comet. William 
Penn. 

85. James II. —Louis XIV. Suppression of 

New-England charters. 

89. William and 

Mary.— Louis XIV. Pope Innocent 

XII. Charles XII., Sweden. 
Peter the Great, Russia. 

Salem witchcraft. Yale College 
founded (1700). Poland dismem- 
bered, 2. 

1700. 2. Anne. — Louis XIV. Pope Clement 

XI. St. Petersburg built, 3. St. 
Paul's rebuilt, 10. Ruins of 
Herculaneum discovered, n. 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 

PART III. CONTINUED. CHAPTERS V.-Vl 
Pages 162-206. 

V. — The House of Brunswick. 

George I. His character and habits. Walpole. Parties. 
The Pretender. 

The South-sea Bubble. The Septennial Act. Literary celeb 
rities. 

George II. Walpole. The war of the Austrian succession. 
Its battles. 

The Pretender. His movements. Battles. Culloden. 

The Seven-Years' War. Its incidents. Washington. The 
East-India Company. Lord Clive. 

Progress. The national debt. 

George II.'s character. Distinguished composer. 

George III. State of the country. William Pitt. Oppres- 
sion of the American Colonies. The American Revolution. 

Warren Hastings. His career and trial. 

Union of England and Ireland. 

General European war. William Pitt, the younger. Battl6 
of the Nile. Trafalgar. Sir John Moore. Talavera. Sala- 
manca. Vittoria. Waterloo ; its effects. 

War with the United States. 

Character of George III.'s reign. Eminent statesmen, histo. 
rians, and literary persons. Junius. Art and the drama. 
Prominent dissenters. Military and naval heroes. 

Progress: condition of the people; cost of living; taxes. 
Criminal laws and their execution ; prisons ; John Howard. 
The poor. Trade and commerce. Manufactures. Agricul- 
ture. Religion. Laws against Catholics. Literature and 
authors. Articles of comfort. Fine arts. Music. State 
of society. Education and morals. Notable events. Popu- 
lation. 

George IV. His character. Queen Caroline. Greek affairs. 
Relief of Catholics. 

2 34 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 235 

William IV. Reform ; what attempted and what secured in 
Parliament. Slavery. Poor-law reform. Municipal gov- 
ernment. Criminal laws. The East-India Company. Wil- 
liam IV.'s character. 

VI. — Victoria. 

Auspicious beginning. The queen's marriage. Union with 
Hanover dissolved. 

Sources of Discontent. Chartism. Corn-laws. Chartism 
revived. Irish separation attempted. 

Temperance reform. Scottish Free Church. Famine in Ire- 
land. The World's Fair. Death of Prince Albert. Cana- 
dian rebellion. Afghan war. Conquests in India. 

The Sepoy rebellion : Delhi ; Cawnpore and Lucknow ; memo- 
rable sieges. Havelock. Nana-Sahib. The East-India 
Company. 

War with China. Free ports. Canton. Pekin. 

The balance of power. Rebellion in Egypt. Mehemet-Ali. 
Settlement of the troubles. Crimean war. Its causes ; inci- 
dents ; battles. Florence Nightingale. 

Australia. 

Public Measures of Victoria's Reign. Penny postage. 
Factory reform. Relief of Jewish disabilities. Suffrage, 
Irish Land Bill. Disestablishment of the Irish Church. 
Education Bill. Alabama claims. Empress of India. Fish 
award. Cyprus. Afghan war. Zululand. The Transvaal. 
Irish Land Bill. Egyptian affairs, and English intervention. 
Home rule for Iceland agitation. Irish Land Acts. War 
in South Africa. Boxer uprising in China. Diamond jubi- 
lee. King Alfred Millenary. Australian Commonwealth. 
Death of Victoria. 

VIL -Edward VII. 

Peace in South Africa. Orange Free State, and the Transvaal 
incorporated in the Empire of Great Britain. 

Population. 

Eminent statesmen and literary celebrities. General progress 
of the nation. 

The British Government. The British Possessions. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

OF ENGLISH AND LEADING CONTEMPORANEOUS SOVEREIGNS AND 

IMPORTANT EVENTS. 

House of Brunswick. 1714 to the present time. 



A.D. 

1700. 14. George I.— Louis XV., France, 15-74. Charles 

VI., Germany, father of Maria There- 
sa. Popes Clement XI. and Ben- 
edict XIII. First post-office in 
America at New York, 10. New Or- 
leans founded, 17. Great earthquake 
at Palermo, 26. 

27. George II Louis XV, France. Pope Bene 

diet XIV. Frederick the Great 

Prussia. Baltimore founded, 29. Bal- 
loons invented. Vermont and Georgia 
settled. Washington born, 32. New 
Style introduced in England, 52. Earth- 
quake at Lisbon, 55. Braddock's de- 
feat; capture of Louisburg and Que- 
bec. Hogarth, Joshua Reynolds, Ben- 
jamin West, Wesley, Hume, Newton. 

60. George III.— Louis XV and XVI., Napoleon, of 

France. Popes Clement XIV., 
Pius VI. and VII. Frederick the 
Great. Frederick William III., 
Prussia, 86. Alexander I., Russia. 
Wellington. Brown University found- 
ed, 64. American Revolution. Sand- 
wich Islands discovered, 78. First 
census in the United States, 9a 
French Revolution. First locomotive, 
236 



ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. 237 

A.D. 

1800. 4. Fulton's steamboat, 7. War be- 

tween England and the United States. 
General war in Europe. Waterloo. 
Napoleon at St. Helena. Johnson, 
Goldsmith, Burns. 

20. George IV.— Louis XVIII. and Charles X., France. 

Pope Leo XII. Missouri Compro- 
mise in the United States. War be< 
tween Greece and Turkey. 

30. William IV. — Louis Philippe, France. Pope Greg- 
ory XVI. Revolution in France. 
Goethe and Lafayette died. Slavery 
abolished in the British Colonies, 34. 

37. Victoria. —Louis Philippe, Louis Napoleon, 

France. Popes Gregory XVI., 
Pius IX., 46 ; and Leo XIII., 78. 
Guizot. Nicholas, 25 ; Alexander 
II., Russia, 55. William, Germany, 
71. Electric telegraph invented, 44. 
War between Mexico and the United 
States, 46-48. French Republic, 48 ; 
the Empire, 52. First Atlantic cable 
laid, 58 ; second cable successful, 66. 
War between France, Sardinia, and 
Austria, 59. Cavour. Emancipation 
of serfs in Russia, 61. Civil war. in 
the United States, 61-65. Proclama- 
tion of Emancipation, 63. War be 
tween Germany and France, 70 
France a Republic, 71. Bismarck 
Telephone invented, 76. Humboldt 
Agassiz, Thiers. Congress of Berlin 
78. Alexander II. of Russia, mur- 
dered, 81. War between China and 
Japan, 94-5. Spanish-American war, 
98-9. 
A.D. 

1900. I. Edward VII. —Nicholas II, Russia. Victor Em- 
manual III., Italy. William II., 
Germany. Popes Leo XIII., Pius 

X. War between Russia and Japan, 
1904. 



GENEALOGY OF THE ENGLISH 
SOVEREIGNS. 



sons of Ethelwoli 



SAXON LINE. 

Egbert, son of Alchmund, Prince of Wessex. 

Ethelwolf, son of Egbert. 

Ethelbald, 

Bthelbert, 

Ethelred I, 

Alfred, 

Edward the Elder, son of Alfred. 

Athelstan, \ 

Edmund I., \ sons of Edward the Elder. 

Edred, ) 

_ , \ sons of Edmund I. 

Edgar, ) 

Edward, ) 

•n4.-u i j tt f sons °f Edgar. 
Ethelred II., ) & 

Edmund II., Ironside, son of Ethelred II. 

Canute (Danish), son of Sweyn, who was declared King of England, but 

was never crowned. 
Harold I. (Danish), son of Canute. 
Canute II., or Hardicanute (Danish), son of Canute. 
Edward the Confessor (Saxon), son of Ethelred II. by his second 

wife, Emma of Normandy. 
Harold II. (Saxon), son of Godwine, Earl of Wessex, a Saxon nobleman, 

but not of royal blood. 

NORMAN FAMILY. 

William I., the Conqueror, son of Robert, Duke of Normandy; born 
1027 r ^ied 1087 ; married Matilda of Flanders, a descendant of Al- 
fred the *5riea.t, 1054 (William's great-aunt, Emma of Normandy, 
was the mother of Edward the Confessor); had four sons and five 
daughters. . 
238 



GENEALOGY OF THE ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. 239 

William II., Rufus, third son of William I. ; born 1060; kiDed 1100; 

not married. 
Henry I., youngest son of William L; born 1068; died 1 135 ; married 

Maud of Scotland 1100, and Adelais of Louvain 1121; had one son 

and one daughter. 
Stephen I., grandson of William I. by his daughter Adela ; born abou* 

1 105; died 1 1 54; married Matilda of Boulogne 1134; had three sors 

and two daughters. 



PLANTAGENET FAMILY. 

Henry II., son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Duke of Anjou, and grandson of 

Henry I. by his daughter Matilda; born 1133 ; died 1189; married 

Eleanor of Guienne 1 1 50 ; had five sons and three daughters. 
Richard I., son of Henry II.; born 11 57; died 1199; married Berenga- 

ria of Navarre 1191 ; no legitimate children. 
John, son of Henry II.; born 1 165; died 1216; married Isabel of 

Gloucester 1 189, and Isabel of Angouleme 1 199 ; had two sons and 

three daughters. 
Henry III., eldest son of John; born 1207 ; died 1272 ; married Eleanor 

of Provence 1236; had two sons and two daughters, besides five chil- 
dren who died in infancy. 
Edward I., eldest son of Henry III.; born 1239; died 1307; married 

Eleanor of Castile 1254, and Margaret of France 1299; had six sons 

and ten daughters. 
Edward II., son of Edward I.; born 1284; murdered 1327; married 

Isabella of France 1308; had two sons and two daughters. 
Edward III., son of Edward II.; born 1312; died 1377; married Phil* 

ippa of Hainault 1328 ; had seven sons and five daughters. 
Richard II., son of the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward III.; 

born 1366; died about 1400; married Anne of Bohemia 1382, and 

Isabella of France 1396; no children. 



BRANCH OF LANCASTER. 

Henry IV., son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, fourth son of 
Edward III. ; born 1366; died 1413; married Mary de Bohun 1397, 
and Joan of Navarre 1403; had four sons and two daughters. 

Henry V., son of Henry IV. ; born 1388 ; died 1422 ; married Catherine, 
daughter of Charles VI. of France, 1420 ; had one son. 

Henry VI., son of Henry V.; born 1421 j died 1471; married Margaret 
of Anjou 1445 ; had one son. 



240 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



BRANCH OF YORK. 

Edward IV., son of Richard, Duke of York ; born 1442 ; died 1483 ; mar 
ried ElizaDeth Woodville Grey 1463 , had three sons and seven daugh- 
ters. Edward IV. was the grandson of Richard, Earl of Cambridge, 
who married Anne Mortimer, the great-grand-daughter of Lionel, Duke 
of Clarence, the third son of Edward III. Richard, Earl of Cam- 
bridge, was son of Edmund, Duke of York, fifth son of Edward III. 

Edward V., son of Edward IV.; born 1470; murdered about 1483; not 
married. 

Richard III., son of Richard, Duke of York, and brother of Edward IV.; 
born 1450 j killed 1485; married Anne of Warwick 1472; had on( 
son. 

TUDOR FAMILY. 

Henry VII., son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, and a descend- 
ant of Edward III. by his fourth son, John of Gaunt ; born 1456; died 
1509; married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV., i486; 
had three sons and four daughters. 

Henry VIII., son of Henry VII. ; born 1491 ; died 1547 ; married Cath- 
erine of Aragon 1509, Anne Boleyn 1532, Jane Seymour 1536, Anne 
of Cleves 1540, Catherine Howard 1540, and Catherine Parr 15431 
had one son and two daughters. 

Edward VI., son of Henry VIII.; born 1537 ; died 1558; not married. 

Mary, daughter of Henry VIII. by Catherine of Aragon, and grand- 
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain; born 1516; died 1558; 
married Prince Philip (afterwards Philip II.) of Spain; no children. 

Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn; born 1533; died 
1603; not married. 



HOUSE OF STUART. 

James I., son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry Stuart (Lord Darnley), 
her cousin. James I. was great-grandson of Henry VII. on the 
side of both father and mother; born 1566; died 1625; married 
Anne of Denmark 1590; two sons and one daughter, besides several 
children who died in infancy. 

Charles I., son of James I.; born 1600; beheaded 1649; married Hen- 
rietta Maria of France 1625 ; three sons and two daughters. 

Oliver Cromwell, Protector; born 1599; died 1658; married Elizabeth 
Bouchier ; had five sons and four daughters, 



GENEALOGY OF THE ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. 241 

Charles II., son of Charles I.; bom 1630; died 1685; married Catherine 

of Braganza; no legitimate children. 
James II., son of Charles I.; born 1633; died 1701 ; married Anne Hyde 

1660, Mary of Modena 1673; one son and two daughters. 
William III. and Mary II. William, Prince of Orange, and grandso». 

of Charles I.; born 1650; died 1702; married Mary 1677. 
Mary, daughter of James II.; born 1662; died 1694; married as above. 

They had no children. 
Anne, daughter of James Ii. ; born 1665; died 1714; married George, 

Prince of Denmark, 1683; nineteen sons and daughters. All died 

young. 

HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

George I., son of the Elector of Hanover, and great-grandson of Jame9 

I.; born 1660; died 1727; married Sophia Dorothea of Zell; had one 

son and one daughter. 
George H., son of George I.; born 1683; died 1760 j married Caroline 

of Anspach 1705; three sons and five daughters. 
George III., son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and grandson of George 

II.; born 1738; died 1820, married Charlotte of Mechlenburg-Stre- 

litz 1 761 ; had nine sons and six daughters. 
George IV., son of George III.; born 1762; died 1830; married Caro- 
line of Brunswick 1790 one daughter. 
William IV., son of George III.; born 1765; died 1837; married Ade 

laide of Saxe-Meiningen ; two daughters, who died young. 
Victoria, daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent, and grand-daughter of 

George III. ; her mother was Maria Louisa Victoria of Saxe-Coburg ; 

born 1 81 9, died 1901 ; married her cousin Albert of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha, 1840 ; four sons and five daughters. The Prince-Consort died 

in 1 861. 
Edward VII., son of Victoria; born 1841 ; married Alexandra, daugb 
ter of the King of Denmark, 1863. Two sons and three daughters. 

The descent of Edward VII. from William the Conqueror will be 
readily understood from the following : — 

Edward VII. is the son of 

Victoria, the daughter of 

Edward (the Duke of Kent), the son of 

George III., the son of 

Frederick (Prince of Wales), the son of 

George II., the son of 



2 42 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

George I., the son of 

Sophia (Electre c s of Hanover), the daughter of 

Elizabeth (Queen of Bohemia), the daughter of 

James I., the so~ of 

Mary, Queen of Scots, the daughter of 

James V. (of Scotland), the son of 

James IV. (of Scotland) and Margaret Tudor, the daughter of 

Henry VII. (and Elizabeth of York), the son of 

Margaret Beaufort, the daughter of 

John Beaufort (the Duke of Somerset), the son of 

John Beaufort (the Earl of Somerset), the son of 

John of Gaunt (the Duke of Lancaster), the fourth son of 

Edward III., the son of 

Edward II., the son of 

Edward I., the son of 

Henry III., the son of 

John, the son of 

Henry II., the son of 

Matilda, the daughter of 

Henry I., the fourth son of 

William the Conqueror. 

The descent can also be traced from Henry VII. through the House of 
York. 

Through the York Branch. 

Elizabeth of York (queen of Henry VII.) was the daughter d 

Edward IV., son of 

Richard (Duke of York), son of 

Anne Mortimer, daughter of 

Roger Mortimer, son of 

Edmund Mortimer and Philippa, daughter of 

Lionel (Duke of Clarence), third son of 

Edward III. 



THE PRESENT ROYAL FAMILY OF 
GREAT BRITAIN. 



His Majesty Edward VII, son of Queen Victoria and Prince 
Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; born November 9, 1841; married, 
March 10, 1863, to Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of King 
Christian IX of Denmark. Succeeded to the throne January 22, 
1901, on the death of his mother. 

His children : — 

1. George Frederick, Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall and 
York ; born June 3, 1865 ; married July 6, 1893, to Victoria Mary, 
daughter of the Duke of Teck. Five children. 

2. Princess Louise; born February 20, 1867; married, July 27, 
1889, to the Duke of Fife. Two children. 

3. Princess Victoria Alexandra; born July 6, 1868. 

4. Princess Maud Charlotte; born November 26,1869; mar 
ried July 22, 1896, to Prince Karl of Denmark. 



245 



244 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



TABLE OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. — No. I. 
From the Accession of Egbert, 827, to the Death of Richard III., 1485. 



1 A.D. 




Kings. 


Ys. 




800 
















Saxon Line. 




27 


Egbert 


11 


First sole monarch of England ; end of the 




38 


Ethelwolf . 


20 


Saxon Heptarchy. 


gth 


57 


Ethelbald . 


3 


( The Danes begin their hostile attacks, and 




60 


Ethelbert . 


6 


\ continue for more than two centuries to 




66 


Ethelred I. . 


5 


( scourge the country. 


900 


72 
00 


Alfred 


28 


An illustrious king; has a prosperous reign. 


Edward the Elder . 


25 


The Danes defeated. 




2 5 


Athelstan . 


16 


Defeats the Danes, Welsh, Scots, &c. 




4 1 


Edmund I. . 


7 


Murdered by the robber Leolf 


10th 


48 


Edred. 


7 


Ascendency of Dunstan. 




55 


Edwy .... 


4 






59 


Edgar 


16 


Dunstan archbishop. 




75 


Edward the Martyr . 


3 


Assassinated by order of Elfrida, 




78 


Ethelred II. 


37 


Massacre of the Danes at the festival St. 
Brice. 


IOOO 












15 


Sweyn, Dane 


1 

2 


Conquers England, and is proclaimed king. 




16 


Edmund II. fronside, 


1 


Defeated by the Danes, and murdered. 
Danish Kings. 




J 7 


Canute, the Great 


J 9 


Completes the conquest of England. 




36 


Harold I., Harefoot . 


4 






39 


Canute II. . 


3 


The power of the Danes terminates. 


nth 








Saxon Line restored. 




4i 


Edward, Confessor . 


24 


First king that touched for ihe king' s-evil. 




65 


Harold II. . 


1 


Defeated and slain at Hastings. 
Norman Family. 




66 


William, Conqueror . 


21 


Conquers England; introduces the feudal 
system and Norman language. 




87 


William II. 


13 


Is shot while hunting ; A rchbishop A nseltn. 


I IOO 
















00 


Henry I. 


35 


Usurps the throne of his brother Robert. 




35 


Stephen {of Blois) 


19 


Usurps, and has contests with Matilda. 
Family of Plantagenet. 


\o.th 


54 


Henry II. . 


35 


Conquers Ireland; assassination of Becket. 




89 


Richard I. . 


10 


Engages in a Crusade, and defeats Saladin. 




99 


John, Lackland 


*7 


Foreign dominions lost; Magna Charta. 


I200 










16 


Henry III. . 


56 


Montfort; first House of Commons. 


13th 


72 


Edward I. . 


35 


Subdues Wales; William Wallace; Rob- 
ert Bruce. 


1300 












7 


Edward II. 


20 


Defeated by the Scots at Bannockburn. 




27 


Edward III. 


50 


A splendid reign ; chivalry in its zenith ; 
victories of Cressy, Poitiers; the Black 


1 4th 


77 


Richard II. 


22 


Prince. 
Deposed and murdered ; Wickliffe; Chau- 
cer. 

Branch of Lancaster. 


I4OO 


99 


Henry IV. . 


14 


Gains the throne instead of the rightful heir. 












13 


Henry V. . 


9 


Victory of Agincourt. Oldcastle burnt. 




22 


Henry VI. . 


39 


Civil wars of the White and Red Roses. 


\$th 








Branch of York. 


61 


Edward IV. 


22 


Battles of Towton,Barnet, and Tewksbury. 




83 


Edward V. . 




Murdered after a reign of seventy-four days. 




83 


Richard III. 


2 


Defeated and slain at Bosworth. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



245 



TABLE OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. — No. 2. 
From Henry VII., 1485, to the Death of George II., 1760. 



A.D. 




Kings. 


Ys. 1 






House of Tudor. 




85 


Henry VII. 


24 


Marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 
uniting the houses of York and Lancas- 
ter; commerce encouraged; the fetidal 
system declines. 


1500 










9 


Henry VIII. . 


38 


A crud tyrant; victory of Flodden by 










Surrey; introduces the Reformation; 










two queeus divorced, two beheaded; 










IVolsey disgraced; Bishop Fisher, Sir 










Thomas More, Cromwell, and Sur- 










rey beheaded. 




47 


Edward VI. 


6 


Promotes the Reformation, aided by 
Cranmer. 




53 


Mary .... 


5 


Restores Catholic religion; marries Phil- 


16th 








ip II. of Spain; Jane Grey beheaded; 
many Protestants burnt. 




58 


Elizabeth . 


44 


Has an auspicious reign, assisted by Bacon, 
Burleigh, Walsingham, &c. ; agricul- 
ture, commerce, and literature flourish; 
the Church of England established; 
Mary, Queen of Scots, beheaded; the 
Spanish A rjnada destroyed. 


l600 
















House of Stuart. 




3 


James I. 


22 


Unites the crowns of England and Scot- 
land; the Gunpowder Plot defeated; 
the Bible translated; the Puritans 
settle at Plymouth, Mass. 




25 


Charles I. . 


24 


Despotic; attempts to raise money without 
consent of Parliament; civil war rages; 
Strafford and Laud beheaded; Charles 
defeated and beheaded (1649) > tne Corn- 
wealth begins. 


v/th 


53 


Cromwell . 


5 


Dissolves the Long Parliament, and becomes 
Protector; Navigation Act; Dutch war. 




60 


Charles II. 


25 


Profligate; his reign injurious to liberty 
and morality; plag?te and fire in 
London; Clarendon banished; Russell 
and Algernon Sidney executed. 




85 


James II. . 


4 


Attempts to establish the Catholic religion, 
and is obliged to abdicate : hence the 
Revolution. 




89 


William III. & Mary. 


13 


Constitution confirmed ; battles of Boyne 
and La Hogue; Peace of Ryswick; na- 
tional debt begins. 


I7OO 










2 


Anne .... 


12 


Marlborough and Eugene's victories of 










Blenheim, Ramillies, Malplaquet, &c. ; 










literature flourishes. 










House of Brunswick. 




14 


George I. . 


*3 


Rebellion in favor of the Pretender sup- 


\%th 








pressed; South-Sea scheme; Walpole 
minister. 




27 


George II. . 


33 


The Pretender overthrown at Culloden; 
war with France carried on in Europe, 
Asia, and America ; battle of Dettingen ; 
conquest of Canada. 



246 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



TABLE OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. — No. 3. 
From George III., 1760, to Edward VII. 



A.D. 




Kings. 


Ys. 




l800 

lgtk 

I900 

20tk 


60 


George III. . 


60 


House of Brunswick, concluded. 
A long and eventful reign ; hostilities with 
and loss of the A merican Colonies ; 
long war with France, terminated by 
the battle of Waterloo ; possessions in 
India greatly extended ; commerce and 
the arts nourish, but the national debt 
greatly increased ; Regency 1811. 


20 
30 

37 

01 


George IV. . 

William IV. . 
Victoria 

• 


10 

7 

63 


Proceedings against Queen Caroline; 
battle of Navarino ; Corporation and 
Test A cts repealed ; Catholic emanci- 
pation. 

The Reform Bill passes ; Irish Church 
Reform ; colonial slavery abolished ; 
East-India charter modified. 

Married to Prince A Ibert ; Chartism ; 
Corn Laws ; Scottish Free Church ; the 
World's Fair ; Canadian rebellion ; 
Afgha?i war ; Sepoy rebellion ; war 
with China ; Egypt ; in the Crimea ; 
penny postage ; J ewish relief ; Educa- 
tion Bill ; disestablishment of the Irish 
Church ; Cyprus ; Afghan war ; Zulu 
war. Home rule agitation. War with 
the Boers. Boxer uprising in China. 
Diamond jubilee. King Alfred mille- 
nary. Australian commonwealth. 


Edward VII. . 


Irish Land Act. 



Note. — The figures on the left hand of the kings denote the commencement of their reigns 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 247 

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF ENGLISH CELEBRITIES. 






A.D. 


Statesmen 
and Com- 


.a 


Poets. 


13 

.a 


Divines. 


-6 


Miscel- 
laneous. 


u 


1200 
1300 


manders. 


c 




Q 




Q 




s 


Leicester . 


.65 


Robt. of Gloucester, 


Langton . . 


28 


Roger Bacon 


. 92 




















Black Prince 


. 76 


Chaucer . . 




Wickliffe . 


84 


Mandeville 


. 72 


1400 


































15M 
1500 


Warwick . 


• 71 


Gower . . . 


8 


A Kempis . 


71 


Caxton . . 


• 92 


Wolsey . . 


• 30 


Skelton . . 


29 


Tyndale . 


36 


Thomas More, 35 




Somerset . 


■ 52 


Wyatt . . . 


41 


Ridley . . 


55 


Thomas Elyo 


t, 46 




Gardiner . 


• 55 


Earl of Surrey 


47 


Latimer . . 


55 


Leland . . 


. 5 2 




S. Cabot 


• 57 


Heywood . . 


65 


Cranmer 


56 


Cheke . . 


• 57 


xtth 


Leicester . 


. 88 


Gascoigne . . 


77 


Card. Pole 


58 


R. Ascham 


. 68 




Walsingham 


. 89 


Marlowe . . 


93 


Coverdale 


69 


Holingshed 


. 81 




Drake . . 


. 96 


Peele . . . 


97 


Knox . . . 


72 


Buchanan . 


. 82 


1600 


Burleigh . 


.98 


Spenser . . 


98 


Hooker . 




P. Sidney . 


. 86 


Essex . . 


. 1 


F. Beaumont. 


15 


Andrewes . 


26 


Napier . . 


• T 7 




Raleigh . . 


. 18 


SHAKSPEARE 


, 16 


Usher . . 


56 


BACON . 


. 26 




Strafford . 


• 4 1 


J. Fletcher . 


25 


Walton . . 


61 


Camden . . 


. 28 




Pym. . . 
Hampden . 


• 43 


Herbert . . 


35 


Th. Fuller . 


61 


Coke . . . 


• 34 




• 43 


Ben Jonson . 


37 


Taylor . . 


67 


Burton . . 


• 39 




Blake . . 


• 57 


Massinger. . 


39 


Barrow . , 


77 


Selden . . 


• 54 


17/tf 


Cromwell . 


• 58 


Cowley . . . 


67 


Leighton 


84 


Harvey . . 


• 57 




Monk . . 


• 7° 


MILTON. . 


74 


H. More . . 


87 


Hale. . . 


• 76 




Shaftesbury 


• 83 


Roscommon . 


84 


Bunyan . . 


88 


Harrington 


• 77 




Russell . . 


. 83 


Otway . . . 


85 


Cudworth . 


88 


Hobbes . . 


• 79 




Alg. Sidney 


.83 


Waller . . . 


87 


Baxter . . 


9i 


Sydenham . 


. 89 


1700 


Temple . . 


■99 


Butler . . . 


88 


Tillotson . . 


94 


Boyle . . 


• 9 1 


Cavendish . 


. 7 


Dryden . . 


1 


Howe . . . 


5 


LOCKE . 


• 4 




Godolphin . 


. 12 


Parnell . . . 


17 


M. Henry . 


14 


Addison . 


• 19 




Somers . . 


. 16 


Rowe . . . 


18 


Burnet . . 


15 


Sir C. Wren 


• 2 3 




Marlborough 


, 22 


Prior . . . 


21 


South . . 


16 


NEWTON 


. 27 




Walpole 


. 46 


Congreve . . 


28 


Clarke . 


29 


De Foe . . 


• 3i 




Bolingbroke 


. 5i 


Gay. . . . 


32 


Watts . . 


48 


Swift. . . 


• 45 




Vernon . . 


• 57 


Pope . . . 


44 


Doddridge 


5i 


Fielding 


• 54 




Wolfe . . 


• 59 


Thomson . . 


48 


Butler . . 


52 


Richardson 


. 61 




Boscawen . 


. 61 


Collins . . . 


56 


Berkeley . 


53 


Sterne . . 


. 68 


\%th 


Lyttelton . 


. 63 


Shenstone . . 


63 


Lardner . 


68 


Hume . . 


.76 




Chatham . 


■ 78 


Churchill . . 


64 


Whitefield 


70 


Garrick . . 


• 79 




Cook . . 


• 79 


Young . . . 


65 


Warburton 


79 


Blackstone 


. 80 




Rodney . . 


. 92 


Akenside . . 


70 


Lowth 


87 


Johnson . 


. 84 




North . . 


. 92 


Gray . . . 


7 1 


Wesley . 


9i 


Ad. Smith . 


• 9° 




Mansfield . 


• 93 


Goldsmith . . 


74 


Price . . 


9 1 


Robertson . 


• 93 




Burke . . 


• 97 


Burns . . . 


96 


Campbell 


96 


Gibbon . . 


. 94 




Amherst 


. 98 


Cowper . . 




Blair . . 




Wm. Jones . 


• 94 


l800 




































Nelson . . 


• 5 


Beattie . . . 


3 


Priestley . 


4 


Sheridan 


. 6 




Pitt . . . 


. 6 


H. K. White . 


6 


Paley . . . 


5 


Play fair . . 


. 19 




Fox . . . 


. 6 


Shelley . . . 


22 


Horsley . 


6 


Herschel . 


. 22 




Grattan . . 


. 20 


Byron . . . 


24 


Porteus . 


8 


Mitford . . 


. 27 




Erskine . . 


• 2 3 


Crabbe . . . 


3 2 


Watson . 


16 


Stewart . . 


. 28 




Canning 


• 2 7 


W. Scott . . 


32 


Th. Scott 


21 


Davy . . 


. 29 


iqth 


Eldon . . 


• 38 


Coleridge . . 


34 


R. Hall . 


31 Mackintosh 


• 3 2 




Grey . . . 


• 45 


Southey . . 


43 


A. Clarke 


32 1 Wilberforce 


• 33 




C. Napier . 


• 52 


Campbell . . 


44 


Arnold . 


42 Doug. Jerrolc 


I. 57 




Wellington 


• S 2 


Wordsworth . 


50 


J. Foster 


44 


Macaulay . 


• 59 




Cobden . . 


. 65 


Montgomery . 


55 


Robertson 


53 


Hallam . . 


• 59 




Palmerston 


• 65 


Leigh Hunt . 


59 


Whately . 


63 


Thackeray . 


. 64 




Russell . . 


. 78 


Mrs. Browning 


62 


Afford . 


7i 


De Quincey 


• 59 




Derby . . 


. 6q 


W. S. Landor 


64 


Stanley . 


81 


Dickens . . 


. 70 




Gladstone . 


. 98 


Tennyson . . 


97 


Spurgeon 


92 


Carlyle . . 


. 81 


1 

\ 


Beaconsneld 


. 81 


M. Arnold . 


. 88 


Manning 


• 92 


H. Spencer 


1903 



248 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



REMARKS ON THE TABLES OF ENGLISH HISTORY 
AND DISTINGUISHED PERSONS. 



Some of the most eminent sovereigns who have occupied the throne of England are 
the following, — Alfred, William the Conqueror, Henry II., Edward I., Edward III., 
Henry VII., Elizabeth, William III. and Victoria. 

The cause of English freedom has been most effectually promoted during some of the 
weakest and least prosperous reigns, as those of John, Henry III., Charles I., and 
James II. 

Some of the most important political changes or revolutions that have taken place in 
England since the Norman Conquest are the granting of the Magna Charta, or the 
Great Charter, in the time of King John; the establishment of the House of Commons, 
in the time of Henry III. ; the Reformation in religion, in the reign of Henry VIII.; th« 
union of the crowns of England and Scotland, at the commencement of the reign ot 
James I.; the civil war between Charles I. and the English Parliament, which issued in 
the defeat and execution of the king, and the establishment of the Commonwealth under 
Cromwell; the restoration of the monarchy, under Charles II.; the dethronement or 
abdication of James II.; the accession of William and Mary, and the establishment of the 
principles of the Constitution (1688) ; the legislative union between England and Scotland, 
in the reign of Queen Anne; the union of Ireland with Great Britain, in the reign of 
George III. (1800) ; and the Reform of Parliament, in the reign of William IV. (1832.) 

Chaucer, the most celebrated of the early English poets, flourished in the latter part 
of the fourteenth century, in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II.; but English 
classical literature may be considered as beginning in the latter half of the sixteenth 
century, during the reign of Elizabeth, with Hooker, a learned divine, Spenser and 
Shakspeare, eminent poets, and Bacon, the philosopher, who also lived through the 
reign of James I. The reign of Queen Anne was particularly distinguished for men of 
genius, among whom were Newton, Addison, Pope, and Swift. 

Wolsey and Gardiner, who are placed in the left-hand column, were both ecclesiastics 
and bishops, though more distinguished as statesmen than as divines. Of those who are 
placed in the right-hand column, Sir Thomas More, the author of " Utopia," &c, and 
Lord Bacon, the philosopher, were both chancellors of England; Sir Matthew Hale 
was an eminent judge; Sir Edward Coke, a great lawyer, Sir Philip Sidney, the 
author of "Arcadia," &c, Harrington, the author of "Oceana," &c, Joh?i Selden, 
and Sir William Jones, all eminent scholars, were also distinguished in political life. 

Some who are classed in the Table among statesmen and commanders are also dis- 
tinguished as authors, as Raleigh, Bolingbroke, Lyttleton, Temple, Algernon Sidney, 
Burke, &c. ; some classed among the divines and miscellaneous authors are also noted as 
poets, as Addison, Watts, Swift, &c. ; and some of the poets are also eminent as prose- 
writers. 

Shakspeare, the great English dramatist, is eminently distinguished for genius; Mil- 
ton is regarded as the greatest epic poet of modern times; Lord Bacon pointed out the 
true mode of philosophizing; the works of Newton formed an era in natural philosophy 
and astronomy, as did those of Locke in the philosophy of the human mind. 

Tnere are many names of much merit in English literature in addition to those con. 
tained in the Table. 



A REFERENCE LIBRARY. 



The following is a list of works referred to in the topics 
for outside reading. Those marked with an asterisk are 
especially desirable. 

Cheyney, E. P. " Industrial and Social History of England." 
Macmillan. $1.40. 

Colby, C. W. "Selections from the Sources of English His- 
tory." Longmans. $1.50. 

*Coman and Bates. " English History Told by English 
Poets." Macmillan. 60 cents. 

Creighton, M. " Age of Elizabeth." Epoch Series. Long- 
mans. $1.00. 

Creighton, Louise. " Stories from English History." Long- 
mans. 50 cents. 

Creighton, Louise. " Social History of England." Long- 
mans. 60 cents. 

Freeman, E. A. " Short History of the Norman Conquest." 
Clarendon Press. 60 cents. 

*Gardiner, S. R. "A Student's History of England." 3 vols. 
Longmans. $3.60. 

*Gardiner, S. R. " School Atlas of English History." Long- 
mans. #1.50. 

Gardiner, S. R. "The Puritan Revolution." Epochs. 
Longmans. $1.00. 

Gardiner, S. R. " Historical Biographies." Longmans. 
40 cents. 

249 



250 A REFERENCE LIBRARY. 

Green, J. R. "A Short History of the English People." 
Harpers. #1.20. 

Guest, M. J., and Underwood, F. H. "A Handbook of 
English History." Macmillan. 75 cents. 

Hale, E. "The Fall of the Stuarts." Epochs. Longmans. 

$1.00. 

*Kendall, Elizabeth K. "A Source-Book of English His- 
tory. Macmillan. 60 cents. 

McCarthy, J. "A History of Our Own Times." 3 vols. 
Harpers. #3.75. 

McCarthy, J. " Epoch of Reform." Longmans. #1.00. 

*Montague, F. C. " Elements of English Constitutional 
History." Longmans. #1.25. 

Moberly, C. E. " The Early Tudors." Longmans. #1.00. 

Old South Leaflets. Directors of the Old South work, 
Boston. 5 cents each. 

Stubbs, W. " The Early Plantagenets." Longmans. #1.00. 



LIST OF WORKS FOR REFERENCE, INVESTIGA 

TION, AND SIDE READING, IN THE STUDY 

OF ENGLISH HISTORY. 



/. For Teachers and Gene7'al Readers. 



Celtic Britain 

Pictures of Old England 

Danes, Saxons, and Normans 

Old English History .... 

The Making of England . 

Anglo-Saxons in Britain . . , 

History of the Anglo-Saxons . . 

Childhood of the English Nation 

The Norman Conquest . 

Short History of the Norman Conquest 

The Conquest of England 

The Normans in Europe 

Celtic Scotland .... 

History of the English People . 

Popular History of England . 

Pictorial History of England 

English History for the Use of Schools 

History of England to James II. . . 

History of England from James II. to death of 

liam III 

The Student's Hume 

A Child's History of England . 
History of England to William and Mary 
History of England from the Earliest Times 

History of England 

A Smaller History of England 

History of England during the Early and Middle Ages, 
Constitutional History of England .... 
History of Normandy and England . • . . 
Decisive Battles of the World 



Wil- 



Rhys. 

Paidi. 

Edgar. 

Freeman. 

Green. 

Allen. 

Turner. 

A r milage. 

Freeman. 

Freeman. 

Green. 

Johnson. 

Skeene. 

Green. 

Knight. 



Bright. 
Hume. 

Macaiday 
Brewer. 
Dickens. 
Lingard. 
White. 
Guizot. 
Smith. 
Pearson. 
Ha I lam. 
Palgrdve 
Creasy. 
251 



*5 : 



LIST OF WORKS FOR REFER F JVC E. 



Select Charters 

The Houses of Lancaster and York .... 

The Early Plantagenets 

Life and Reign of Richard III 

Age of Chivalry 

Lives of the Queens of England 

The Crusades 

Wars of the Roses 

History of England from Wolsey to Death of Elizabeth, 

History of Edward III 

History of Edward III 

The Age of Anne 

The Fall of the Stuarts 

The Age of Elizabeth . 

The Era of the Protestant Revolution 

Mary, Queen of Scots 

Mary, Queen of Scots 

The Puritan Revolution 

Life and Letters of Oliver Cromwell .... 

Life of Milton 

Three English Statesmen, Pym, Cromwell, and Pitt . 
History of England from 1820 to 1874 .... 

The Four Georges 

Lectures on Modern History ...... 

The Epoch of Reform 

History of the Nineteenth Century .... 

History of our own Times 

Dictionary of Dates 

Synchronology of History 

Historical Atlas of England 

II. For Pupils and Others. 

Before the Conquest. 
History of Alfred the Great 
History of Alfred the Great 
History of Alfred the Great 
The Faerie Queene . . • 
The Early Dawn . . . 
Harold the Dauntless . , 
Macbeth .... 
Cameos of English History , 
Edwin of Deira (poem) • 



Stubbs. 

Gairdner. 

Stubbs. 

Gairdner. 

Buljinch. 

Strickland 

Cox. 

Edgar. 

Fronde. 

Warburtt*- 

Longman. 

Morris. 

Hale. 

Cr eight On 

Seebohm. 

Tytler. 

Ha sack. 

Gairdner. 

Carlyle. 

Masson. 

Smith. 

Moleszvorth. 

Thackeray. 

Arnold. 

McCarthy. 

Mackenzie. 

McCarthy. 

Hayden. 

Hawes. 

Pearson. 



Pauli. 

Hughes. 
Abbott. 
Spenser. 
Mrs. Charles. 
Scott. 

Shakspeare. 
Yonge. 
Alex. Smith. 



LIST OF WORKS FOR REFERENCE. 253 

Idylls of the King ...*... Tennyson. 

Ethwold (drama) Miss Baillie, 

Vision of Sir Launfall ...... Lowell. 

William I. 

A Short History of the Norman Conquest . . . Freeman 

History of William the Conqueror . . . . Abbott. 

Decisive Battles of the World (Hastings) . . . Creasy. 

Harold Bulwer. 

Hereward Kingsley. 

Harold (drama) Tennyson. 

William II. 

History of William Rufus Freeman. 

Age of Chivalry . - Bulfinch. 

Chivalry and the Crusades James. 

Age of Fable Bulfinch. 

The Children's Crusades Gray. 

Henry I., etc. 

The Betrothed Scott. 

Richard I. 

Life of Richard I Abbott. 

Richard Coeur de Lion ...... White. 

Richard Coeur de Lion James. 

The Talisman Scott. 

Ivanhoe . Scott. 

Maude and Miriam MacKeever. 

Blondel Rice. 

fOHN. 

King John Shakspcare. 

Runnymede Logan. 

Henry III. 
The Borderers Wordsworth 

Edward I. 

The Prince and the Page Yonge. 

The Days of Bruce Aguilar. 

Tales of a Grandfather (extend into the 18th century), Scott. 

Castle Dangerous Scott. 

Scottish Chiefs Porter. 



254 LIST OF WORKS FOR REFERENCE. 

Edward II. 

The Lord of the Isles ...... Scott. 

Edward III. 

Halidon Hill (drama) Scott. 

Piers Plowman Langland. 

Canterbury Tales Chaucer. 

The Lances of Linwood Yonge. 

Richard II. 

King Richard II Shakspeare, 

History of Richard II Abbott. 

Wat Tyler (drama) Southey. 

Chevy Chase * Old Ballad, 

Merrie England « Ainsworth. 

Henry IV. 

King Henry IV Shakspeare. 

Fair Maid of Perth Scott. 

The White Rose of Langley Holt. 

Henry V. 

King Henry V. . . Shakspeare. 

History of Henry V. . Towle. 

Battle of Agincourt ........ James. 

A Royal Poet (in Sketch Book) .... Irving. 

Henry VI. 

King Henry VI Shakspeare. 

Wars of the Roses Edgar. 

History of Margaret of Anjou Abbott. 

The Caged Lion Yonge. 

Joan of Arc DeQuincy. 

Decisive Battles of the World (Orleans) . Creasy. 

Last of the Barons Bulwer. 

Anne of Geirstein Scott. 

Historical Tales of Lancastrian Times . . . Dunstan. 

Edward IV. 

Jane Shore ........ Rowe. 

Richard III. 

King Richard III Shakspeare. 

History of Richard III. . .... Gairdner. 



CIST OF WORKS FOR REFERENCE. 255 

History of Ricnard III Abbott. 

The Houses of Lancaster and York . . . Gairdner. 

Henry VII. 

Perkin Warbeck Mrs. Shelley. 

Henry VIII. 

King Henry VIII Shakspeare. 

Henry VIII. and his Court Mtihlbach. 

Anne Boleyn (drama) .*.... Milman. 

Darnley James. 

Windsor Castle Ainswortk. 

Marmion Scott. 

Anne Boleyn Baker. 

Tower Hill Ainswortk. 

Lady of the Lake Scott. 

Lives of the Lord Chancellors Campbell. 

Stanfleld Hall Smith. 

Edward VI. 

Life of Lady Jane Grey . ... Nicolas. 

The Constable of the Tower Ainswortk. 

Mary. 

Queen Mary (drama) . Tennyson. 

Cardinal Pole ........ Ainswortk. 

Robin Tremayne Holt. 

Elizabeth. 

History of Queen Elizabeth ..... Abbott. 

Age of Elizabeth . Creighton. 

Shakspeare's Youth Williams. 

Memoirs of the Court of Elizabeth .... Mrs. Aikin. 

Kenilworth . Scott. 

Amyas Leigh, or Westward Ho ! • . . . Kingsley. 

The Monastery Scott. 

Decisive Battles of the World (Spanish Armada) . Creasy. 

James I. 

The Star Chamber . Ainswortk. 

Fortunes of Nigel Scott. 

Guy Fawkes . . Ainswortk. 

Arabella Stuart ........ James. 



256 



LIST OF WORKS FOR REFERENCE. 



Charles I. 

History of Charles I Abbott. 

The White Gauntlet Reid. 

Legend of Montrose Scott. 

The Commonwealth. 

Life of Milton, and his Times Masson. 

Cavaliers and Roundheads Edgar. 

Woodstock Scott. 

Maiden and Married Life of Mary Powell . . Manning. 

Rokeby Scott. 

On Both Sides of the Sea Mrs. Charles 

Rosamond Fane Lee. 

The Draytons and Davenants Mrs. Charles 

Charles II. 

History of Charles II Abbott. 

Old Mortality Scott. 

Peveril of the Peak . . . . . . . Scott. 

James II. 

Duke of Monmouth Griffin. 

The Last of the Cavaliers Yonge, 

William and Mary. 

The True-born Englishman ..... DeFoe 

Anne. 

The Bride of Lammermoor Scott. 

The Duke of Marlborough Coxe. 

The Black Dwarf Scott. 

Henry Esmond . . . . . . . Thackeray 

The Pirate .......... Scott. 

George I. 

Gulliver's Travels Swift, 

Rob Roy Scott. 

George II. 

Lochiel (a poem) Campbell. 

Citizen of the World Goldsmith. 

Waverley Scott. 

Historical Sketches of the Reign of George II. . . Mrs. Oliphant 

Red Gauntlet Scott. 

The Old Manor House Miss Smitk, 



LIST OF WORKS FOR REFERENCE. 



The Heart of Mid-Lothian 

The Virginians 

Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevylyan 

George III. 

Vicar of Wakefield 

Barnaby Rudge 

The Antiquary 

The King's Own 

Guy Mannering . 

Bracebridge Hall 

St. Ronan's Well . 

Belinda 

Adam Bede . 

Against the Stream 

The Deserted Village 

Vanity Fair 

Our Village . 

Waterloo . 

Les Miserables (battle of Waterloo) . 

Decisive Battles of the World (Waterloo) 

George IV. 
The Four Georges .... 

William IV. 

Epoch of Reform ..... 



257 



Scott. 

Thackeray. 
Mrs. Charles. 



Goldsmith. 
Dickens. 
Scott. 
Maryatt. 
Scott. 
Irving. 
Scott. 

Edgeworlh. 
George Eliot. 
Mrs. Charles, 
Goldsmith. 
Thackeray. 
Miss Mit/ord. 
Eichmann. 
Victor Hugo 
Creasy. 

Thackeray. 

McCarthy. 



Victoria. 

History of our own Times McCarthy. 

Oliver Twist Dickens. 

Heir of Redcliffe Yonge. 

Nicholas Nickleby Dickens. 

History of the Nineteenth Century .... Mackenzie. 

Epoch of Reform McCarthy, 

Bleak House Dickens. 

Lothair Disraeli. 

Martin Chuzzlewit Dickens. 

Alton Locke Kingsley. 

Little Dorrit * Dickens. 

Winifred Bertram Mrs. Charles 

Tom Brown at Rugby Hughes. 

Tom Brown at Oxford Hughes. 

Life of the Prince Consort Martin. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

ABOUKIR 171 

Acre 61 , ig6 

Act of Supremacy no 

Act of Uniformity no, 152 

Addison 156, 182 

Afghan wars 192, 202 

Africa 211 

Agincourt (A zhankoor) 83 

Agricola 8 

Agriculture 2, 38, 78, 116, 181 

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of .... 164 

Alabama claims 200 

Albert, Prince 189, 192 

Albion 2 

Alchemy 75 

Alexandria , . 203 

Alfred 22, 210 

Allahabad 194 

Alma 198 

America 99, 124 

American Revolution 166 

Amusements .... 37. 78, 121, 181 

Angles 12 

Anglesey 7 

Anne 155 

Anne Boleyn (Bul-en) 104 

Anne of Cleves 105 

Anselm 54 

Anti-Corn-Law League 190 

Antoninus 8 

Arabi Bey . . . ' 203 

Architecture 73, 118 

Armada, Spanish in 

Arms and armor 2 

Arnold, Thomas 204 

Art and Artists . . . 121, 139, 155, 176 

Arthur 13, 16 

Ascalon 61 

Ascham, Roger 108 

Astrology and astronomy 3,75 

Athelstan 24 

Athelwold 26 

Augustan age of England 156 

2 



PAGE 

Augustine 14 

Australia 207 

Backgammon 37 

Bacon, Francis 125 

Bacon, Sir Nicholas 112 

Bacon, Roger 75 

Balance of Power 196 

Balaklava 198 

Baliol 64 

Bank of England 154 

Bannockburn 65 

Bards 3 

Barebone's Parliament 146 

Barons 72 

Bayeux tapestry 38 

Beaumont and Fletcher 127 

Becket, Thomas a 58 

Bede 40 

Birmah 193 

Benares 169, 194 

Berlin, Treaty of 201 

Bernicia 16 

Beyroot 196 

Bible n, 24, 124 

Black Death 68 

Black Prince 67 

Blake, Admiral 145 

Blackstone 175 

Blenheim 156 

Blucher {Blook'-er) 173 

Boadicea 8 

Boers 202, 210, 211 

Bolingbroke 136 

Bonaparte, Napoleon 171 

Bosworth 90 

Bothwell, Earl of in 

Boyne, Battle of the 154 

Braddock, Gen 164 

Bradshaw 141 

Bright, John 190, 205 

Brighton 42 

Britain 1 

59 



260 



INDEX. 



Britannia • 

British Empire 

British Government 

British possessions 

Britons 4 

Boxers 210, 

Browning 

Bruce, Robert 

Brunswick, House of 

Bruyes (Bru-a), Admiral 

Buckingham 

Bunyan, John 

Burke, Edmund 170, 

Burleigh, Lord 

Burns, Robert 

Byron, Lord i75> 



219 
221 
, 12 
213 

214 
64 
164 

171 
125 

i75 
112 

i75 



Cabal, The 150 

Cabots, The 99 

Cabul 19 2 

Cade, Jack 86 

Csedmon (Ked-moti) 20 

Csedwalla 17 

Caesar, Julius 6 

Calais 67, 109, 

Calendar, The 184 

Caledonians 5>8 

Cambridge 17 1 42 

Campbell, Sir Colin 194 

Canadian rebellions 194 

Candles 36 

Cannon 67, 75 , 83 

Canute 1 28 

Canute II 28 

Caradoc, or Caractacus 7 

Carlyle, Thomas 214 

Caroline, Queen 185 

Castles 46, 71, 143 

Caswollon, or Cassivelaunus .... 7 

Catesby, Robert 112 

Cathedrals 73 

Catherine of Arragon 100 

Catherine of France 84 

Catherine Howard 105 

Catherine Parr 105 

Catholic Emancipation Act . . . . 186 

Catholic-Relief Bill 182 

Catholics, Laws against 182 

Cavaliers 132 

Cawnpore 194 

Caxton 89 



PAGE 

Cecil (Ses-il), Robert 125 

Cecil, William 112 

Celts 2 

Cerdic 16 

Chamberlin, Joseph 205 

Charlemagne (Sharl-mahn) .... 17 

Charles 1 128 

Charles II 142, 144, 148 

Chartists 190 

Chatham, Lord 169 

Chaucer 70 

Chester 42, 48 

Chesterfield, Lord 175 

Chevy Chace 70 

China, War with 195 

Christianity 11,14,40 

Chivalry 68, 76 

Churls 18 

Cimri 2 

Clarendon, Constitutions of ... . 58 

Clarendon, Lord .150 

Claudius 7 

Clergy 72 

Clive, Lord 167 

Coal 78 

Cobden 190 

Cobham, Lord 82 

Coke 127 

Coleridge 175 

Colleges 91 » XI 4 

Columbus 99 

Commerce, 1, 39, 78, 99, 116, 155, 180, 213 

Commons, House of 63,74,204 

Commonwealth, The 141 

Conquest, The 34 

Constitution, British 153 

Copper 1, 4, 11 

Cornwallis, Lord 169 

Corporation and Test Act 186 

Corunna 172 

Covenant, Scotch 134 

Cowper 173 

Crammer, Archbishop . . .101, 104, 108 

Cressy 67 

Crimea 197 

Criminal laws 18, 178, 187 

Cromwell, Oliver 133, 142 

Cromwell, Richard 148 

Cromwell, Thomas 104 

Crusades 61 

Culloden 166 



1NDI:\. 



26l 



PAGE 

Cumberland, t)uke of 166 

Curran 172 

Cymbeline 7 

Cyprus 201 

DANEGELD 27 

Danes 21,27,47 

Danish kings 28 

Darnley, Lord m 

Darwin 214 

David of Scotland 67 

Defoe, Daniel 165 

Delhi 194 

De Ruyter 145 

Dettengen 166 

De Wett 209 

Diamond Jubrlee 206 

Dickens, Charles 214 

Disraeli (Diz-rd-el-e) . . . . 199, 201 

Domestic life 37 

Doomsday Book 50 

Douglas 81 

Drake, Sir Francis . . . .111,112,114 

Drama 176 

Dress 4, 10, 19, 36, 79, 120 

Drogheda 143 

Druidism 2 

Dryden 151 

Dublin 78 

Dudley, Guilford 107 

Duke 68 

Dunbar 64, 143 

Dunkirk 147 

Dunstan 25, 40 

Duquesne (Du-kane), Fort ... . . 196 

East anglia i 3 , i 7 

East India Company . ^15, 167, 188, 195 

Eddystone Lighthouse 180 

Edgehill 133 

Edgar 25 

Edgar Atheling 31,47 

Edinburgh (Ed-in-b?ir-ro) . . . 17, 144 

Edmund 25 

Edmund Ironside 27 

Edred 25 

Education . . . 20, 74, 100, 121, 183, 199 

Edward the Confessor 29 

Edward the Martyr 26 

Edward the Elder 24 

Edward 1 64 



PAGE 

Edward II 65 

Edward III 66 

Edward IV 87 

Edward V 89 

Edward VI 1 06 

Edward VII 211 

Edwin * . . . 16 

Edwy 25 

Egbert 16, 17, 21 

Egypt 196, 203 

Eleanor of Guienne 57 

Elfrida 26 

Elgiva 25 

Elizabeth 109 

Ella 15 

Electoral Reform 204 

Ely 49 

Emma of Normandy 26 

Empress of India 198 

England, Name of 13 

Erasmus 106 

Essex 13, 16 

Essex, Earl of 112 

Ethelbald 21 

Ethelbert 21 

Ethelbert of Kent 14 

Ethelburga 16 

Ethelred 1 21 

Ethelred II 26 

Ethel wolf 21 

Eton College 91 

Evesham 63 

Exeter 42, 46 

Factory reform 199 

Fairfax, Lord 133 

Fairfax, Sir Thomas 135 

Falkirk 64, 166 

Falkland, Lord 134 

Famine in Ireland 191 

Famine in India 207 

Fawkes, Guy 123 

Feudal period 45 

Feudal system 51. 115 

Fielding 182 

Field of the Cloth of Gold .... 102 

Fire in London 150 

Fisher, Bishop 105 

Fitz Osborn, William 46 

Flodden Field 102 

Fontenoy 164 



262 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Food 2, 19, 36, 79, 118 

Fotheringay Castle m 

Fox, Charles J. ...... 170, 175 

France, English claim to 66 

France, 66, 83, 84, 102, 109, 154, T55, 166, 171 

Francis, Sir Philip 176 

Free Church of Scotland 191 

French Revolution 171 

Friars 73 

Frobisher 112 

Furniture 10,35,118,183 

Gaels 5,8 

Garrick, David 176 

Garter, Knights of the 68 

Gas 184 

Gascoigne, Sir William 82 

Gauls 6 

Gaveston 65 

George 1 164 

George II 165 

George III 168 

George IV 185 

Gibbon 168, 175 

Gibraltar 156 

Gildas 20 

Gladstone 200, 203, 205 

Glendower, Owen 81 

Godwin, Earl 29 

Gold 11 

Goldsmith, Oliver 175 

Grampian Hills 8 

Grattan 175 

Gray 175 

Great Britain 1 

Grecian affairs 186 

Greenwich Observatory 152 

Gregory, Pope 14 

Gresham, Sir Thomas 114 

Grey, Earl 186 

Grey, Lady Jane 107 

Grouchy (Groo'-shy), Marshal ... 173 

Guienne 84 

Guines (Gheen) ......... 102 

Guise (Gwees), Duke of 109 

Gunpowder 75 

Gunpowder Plot 123 

Gypsies 117 

Habeas corpus 151 

Hadrian 9 



PAGfi 

Hale, Sir Matthew 151 

Halidon Hill ......... 66 

Halley 151 

Halloween 3 

Hampden, John 129, 134 

Handel . . 168, 183 

Hanover 189 

Hanover, Elector of . 164 

Hardicanute 28 

Hardrada 32 

Harfleur 83 

Harold I 28 

Harold II 30 

Harvey 127 

Harwich 42 

Hastings, Battle of 33 

Hastings, Warren 169 

Havelock, Gen. 194 

Hawkins 112 

Hengist 12 

Henrietta Maria 128 

Henry 1 54 

Henry II 57 

Henry III 63 

Henry IV 81 

Henry V 82 

Henry VI 84 

Henry VII 97 

Henry VIII 101 

Heptarchy 13 

Hereward 49 

Hexam Forest 88 

Hogarth 183 

Home Rule 205, 206 

Hong Kong 195 

Hooper 108 

Horsa 12 

Hotspur 70 

Houses . . 2, 4, 10, 19, 35, 41, 60, 78, 118 

Howard 112 

Howard, John 179 

Hume 175 

Huxley 214 

Hyder Ali (Hider Ah-lee) .... 169 

ICENI 8 

Ida ... 16 

Ina 16 

India ,.115, 167, 192 

Inkerman 198 

Innocent, Pope 62 



INDEX. 



263 



PAGE 

Ireland 1,5,142,170,191 

Ireton 142 

Irish Church 200 

Irish Land League 203 

Iron, and iron furnace 11 

Isabella of France 66 

Jackson, Gen 174 

Jacobites 153, 164 

James IV. of Scotland 102 

James VI. of Scotland 111 

James I. . . . < 122 

James II 152 

Jane Seymour 105 

Jeffries, Chief Justice 152 

Jelalabad 192 

Jewish disabilities 199 

Jews 64 

Joan of Arc 84 

Johannesburg 208 

John 62 

John of France 67 

John of Gaunt 69 

Johnson, Samuel 175 

Jonson, Ben 127 

Junius's letter 175 

Jutes 12 

Kent i 3 , i 4 

Khyber Pass 201, 202 

Knights 76 

Knox, John m 

Kruger, President 208,211 

Lancaster, branch of . 71,81,86 

Land Bills, Irish . . . 200, 203, 205, 214 

Language, English 69, 76 

Latimer, Bishop 108 

Laud, Archbishop 130 

Lead i)ii 

Leicester, Earl of 112 

Leven, Earl of 135 

Lighthouses 9, 180 

Li Hung Chang 210 

Lilly, William 106 

Lingard 214 

Llewellyn 64 

Loch Leven Castle 11 1 

Locke, John 151 

Lollards 82 

London 41,78,114,155,185 



PAGE 

Long Parliament 145 

Louisburg J65 

Lucknow j Q4 

Luther, Martin 103 

MACAULAY - . 214 

Macbeth 3I 

Magna Charta 62 

Malakoff, The i 9 8 

Malplaquet 156 

Manchester 42 

Mandeville, Sir John 69 

Mansfield, Lord 175 

Manufactures . . . .5,38,116,155,180 

Margaret of Anjou 85, 87 

Maria Theresa 166 

Marlborough, Duchess of 156 

Marlborough, Duke of 155 

Marston Moor 135 

Mary 1 10 j 

Mary II 153 

Mary, Queen of Scots no 

Matilda of Flanders 53 

Matilda of Scotland 55 

Matilda Plantagenet 55 

Matthew, Father 191 

May Day 3, 121 

McCarthy, Justin 206 

Mehemet AH {Ah' -lee) 196 

Mercia 13, 17 

Milton, John 141, 151 

Mining 4, n 

Miracle plays 73 

Money .... 5, n, 20, 106, 127, 136 

Monk, Gen 144 

Monmouth, Duke of 152 

Montfort, Simon de 63 

Montrose, Earl of 135, 143 

Moore, Sir John 172 

Moore, Tom 204 

Morals 74, 183 

More, Sir Thomas 104 

Morris 214 

Mortimer 66 

Music 37, 181 

Nana sahib 194 

Napier, Sir Charles 190 

Naseby 136 

Natal 209 

National debt 167 



264 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Navarino, Battle of ....... 186 

Navigation Act, and laws . . . 144, 190 

Navy 99, 153, 184 

Needles 5 

Nelson, Lord 171 

Nero 7 

Neville's Cross 67 

Newbury 134 

New Forest 49 

New Orleans, Battle of 174 

Newspapers 155 

Newton, Sir Isaac -151 

Nightingale, Florence 198 

Nile, Battle of the 171 

Non-jurors 153 

Norman family 45 

Normans 29 

North, Lord 175 

North, Kit 204 

Northumbria 13, 16 

Northumberland, Duke of .... 107 
Nottingham, Countess of 113 

OATES, Titus 151 

O'Connell, Daniel 186, 190 

Odo 25 

Oldcastle, Sir John 82 

Orange Free State .... 202,209,211 

Ordeal, Trial by 40, 60 

Orleans 85 

Ormond, Marquis of 142 

Otterburn 70 

Oude 193 

Oudenarde 156 

Oxford University 24 

PACKENHAM (Pak'n-am), Gen., 174 

Paris, Peace of 168 

Parliamentary Reform 199 

Parnece, Charles S 204 

Parr, Dr 170 

Pekin 196 

Penda ; . . . . 17 

Percy 70 

Petition of Rights 129 

Philip II. of Spain 107, 109 

Philip of Valois 66 

Philippa 67 

Phoenicians 1 

Picts S,8,i2 

Pilgrims 125 



PAGE 

Pins s , 106 

Pitt, William 168, 175 

Pitt, William, the younger . . 171,175 

Plague, The great 150 

Plantagenet 56 

Plantagenet family 57 

Plautius (Plau-she-us) 7 

Plymouth 125 

Poitiers {Piva-tiers) 67 

Pope, Alexander . . . ' 156 

Population 185, 213 

Posts 140, 155 

Postage, Penny 198 

Pottery and porcelain 4, 180 

Prayer, Book of Common . . - . . . 106 

Preston Pans 166 

Pretenders, The .... . . 164, 166 

Pretoria 211 

Prince regent 175 

Printing 89 

Prisons 179 

Protectorate, The 146 

Punjab 192 

Puritans 710,124 

Quebec 167 

RAIKES, Robert 181 

Raleigh 112, 116, 122 

Ramillies 156 

Ravenspur 70 

Redan, The 198 

Reform bills 186 

Reformation 102, 115 

Religion 2, 19, 40, 181 

Repression Bill 203 

Restoration, The 148 

Reviews, Literary 176 

Revolution of 1688 153 

Reynolds, Sir Joshua . . . 170, 176, 183 

Rhodes, Cecil 209,213 

Richard 1 61 

Richard II 69 

Richard III 89 

Richardson 182 

Ridley 108 

Roads <9, iS5 

Robert of Normandy 49 

Roberts, Gen 209 

Robertson 175 

Rogers, John . 10S 



INDEX. 



265 



PAGE 

Romans in Britain 6 

Roman relics 10 

Rooke, Admiral 156 

Roseberry, Lord 206,209 

Roses, Wars of the 86, 90 

Rouen S3 

Roundheads 132 

Round Table, Knights of the . . . 13 

Royal Academy 183 

Royal Family 243 

Rubens 139 

Rugby 114 

Rump Parliament 142 

Rupert, Prince 133 

Russell, Lord John 187 

Ruskin 214 

Russia i97> 201 

Rye-House Plot 151 

Ryswick, Peace of 154 

SACHEVERELL, Dr 157 

St. Alban « 

St. Alban's 7 

St. Brice 27 

St. Helena 174 

St. Paul's Cathedral 9, 16 

Saladin 61 

Salamanca 172 

Salisbury, Lord . . . 205, 206, 212, 213 

Sancroft 153 

Savings banks . 185 

Sawtree, William 81 

Saxe, Marshal 166 

Saxons 12, 18 

Saxon kings * . . . 21, 29 

Schools 10,40,114 

Scinde 190 

Scott, Sir Walter 175, 188 

Scotland . 1, 5, 8, 64, 65, 68, 70, 104, 124, 
130, 134, 136, 143 

Scots S, 8, 12, 81 

Sebastopol 197 

Sebert .... 16 

Senlac .... 33 

Sepoy Rebellion 193 

Septennial Act 165 

Serfs . 91 

Seven-Years' War 166 

Severus 9 

Shakspeare no, 127 

Sheffield 42 



PAGE 

Sheridan 170, 175 

Ship-money 129 

Shrewsbury 18 

Siddons, Mrs 170, 176 

Sidney, Algernon 151 

Sidon 4 

Sigebert 17 

Silistria 197 

Silver n 

Simnel, Lambert 97 

Slaves and Slavery . . . 9, '8,35, 187 

Smollett 182 

Somerset, Duke of 106 

Somerset, Earl of 125 

Soult, Marshal 172 

South Africa 202, 211 

South-sea Bubble 165 

Spectator, The 182 

Spencer 214 

Spenser no 

Spoons 5 

Spurs, Battle of the 102 

Stafford, Lord 151 

Stamp Act 168 

Star Chamber 100 

Steamboat and steam-engine .... 184 

Steele 156, 182 

Stephen 55 

Steme 175 

Stonehenge 3 

Strafford, Earl of 120 

Stuart, Arabella 122 

Stuart family .... 122,149,157,166 

Stuart, House of 100 

Suetonius 7 

Suez Canal 203 

Surrajah Dowlah 167 

Sweyn 27, 49 

Swift 156, 165 

Swords 5 

Syria 196 

TALAVERA 172 

Tatler, The 182 

Taxes 60, 178 

Temperance reform 191 

Tennyson 214 

Tewksbury 88 

Thackeray 214 

Thanes .... 18 

Thomson 165 



266 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Tien-tsin 196 

Tin i, ii 

Tonnage and poundage 128 

Tories 157 

Tostig 32 

Tournaments 76 

Tower of London 46, 87 

Towton 87 

Trafalgar 171 

Transvaal 202,208,211 

Tudor family 97 

Tudor, Owen 84 

Tyler, Wat 69 

Tyrone, Earl of 112 

Tyrrel, Walter 54 

UlTLANDERS 208 

Ulundi 201 

United States, War with 174 

Utrecht, Peace of 156 

Van tromp 145 

Vandyke 139 

Vane, Sir Henry 134 

Victoria .... 189, 198,206,211,213 

Villenage 80 

Vittoria 172 

Vortigern . 12 

Wakefield 86 

Wales 1,2,21,31,34,64 

Wales, Prince of 64 

Wallace, William 61 

Walpole, Robert 164 165 

Walsingham 112 

Warwick 87 

Warbeck, Perkin 98 

Washington, George 166 

Waterloo 173 



PAGE 

Waterloo Bridge 185 

Watts, Isaac 165 

Weddings 37, 121 

Wedgwood 180 

Wellington, Duke of .... 172, 186 

Welsh 2, 81 

Wesleys, The 176 

Wessex 13, 17 

Westminster Abbey . . . .9,16,31,101 

Westminster Assembly 140 

Westminster Hall 1 37, 770 

Whigs i S7 

Whiten eld (Hwit-feeld) 176 

Wickliffe, John 70 

Wilberforce, William 187 

William I 45 

William II S4 

William III 153 

William IV 186 

William of Normandy 31 

William of Orange 153 

Williams, Roger 140 

Winchester . , s . . . ... 42 

Windsor 42, 46 

Witan 18, 39 

Wolfe, Gen 167 

Wolsey (IVool-ze), Cardinal .... 103 

Women 18,38,117 

Worcester 11,42,144 

Wordsworth 214 

World's Fair 191 

Wren, Sir Christopher 151 

York 16, 32, 40, 42, 47 

York, Branch of 71,86,87 

York, Duke of 150 

Yorktown 169 

Zulus 200, 202 



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